Rime of the Ancient Mariner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Rime of the Ancient Mariner - Essay Example In this poem, the supernatural world plays a role of punishing mariner as a result of his misdeed of killing albatross. Mariner did not have enough respect for the supernatural world when he killed the albatross thus the supernatural decision to punish him in combination with the natural world. As he is subjected to the rigors of the dehydration and hunger he is also revealed dreams of the natural world touched with the supernatural as the ocean turns to sickening and rotting as well as spirits weaves through his vision. There is an interaction of the natural world which are the poem characters and supernatural world. For the natural world, the Ancient Mariner, who is regarded as a kind of mysterious figure, the poem, The Rime of the Ancient Mariners, deals with two distinct times. The time of voyage and the time of Mariner are retelling. The interaction of the natural and supernatural world that exists here is that at the time of voyage, the Mariner uses a crossbow instead of firearm and that his ship is said to be the first to sail into the Pacific Ocean. It is clear that Mariners fate is decided by a vehicle of random chance and not just any kind of divine judgment. The Mariner acts this way in order to bring it out clear that he is more than just a natural world, thus kind of trying to compete with the supernatural worlds. For the spirits who comprised of the mysterious pole, spirits have some interaction with the natural world. The spirits resemble angles whereby in being wholly immaterial though have no regular place in Christian cosmology. These spirits are said to be the invisible being that are referred to as the epigraph to the poem. When mariner killed the albatross, he was punished by these spirits in essence that he failed to respect the supernatural world. These spirits in the poem act this way to demonstrate that, however, much one may come to know about the physical world, the spiritual one is far much ahead and different

Importance of Time in Chinese Culture Essay Example for Free

Importance of Time in Chinese Culture Essay The importance of time is always dependent on the different perspectives of people’s origin, particularly culture. â€Å"Time is one of the most important bases by which culture rests and all other activities revolve† (Riggs et al 31). Different cultures handle time differently. In the past, time was measured in daylight, darkness, or in seasons; however, nowadays, time has become more important and more complicated. Yet, no matter how complicated it has become, it always boils down to the influence of culture, just like China, one of the countries with a very rich culture. The impact of modernization in China on the changes of Chinese’ behavior is significant. However, these changes in their behavior have had a more significant impact on their values. Indeed, Chinese seem to have never given up one of their most important cultural characteristics, Guanxi, which up until now, remains as an important Chinese business element. In the advent of globalization, Chinese has kept and reinforced this unique characteristic even in the most important socio-cultural changes. Yes, China has indeed undergone substantial cultural changes; nonetheless, with regards to the thinking and dealing process, modern China remains rooted to its traditional Yin Yang approach, and this is reflected on their shrewd use of time to keep their relationship intact. Because Chinese people value relationship more than anything else, as they believe that this could lead them to success, it is logical to expect that the Chinese society concentrates on fluid/multi-focus time value. Chinese people are both famous and infamous in different negotiations for their wise use of time as their bargaining tool. Chinese are known to have adept ability to run down the clock because they prioritize their relationships with their associates or business partners first. This way, they know that the value of relationship or guanxi continues. Moreover, Chinese can afford or stand to play the waiting game, provided that there is always someone left to invest and spend for them. Cultures around the world have developed their own way of responding to time. The dimension for time orientation is based on two aspects; the relative significance the culture gives to its past, present, and future, and its way of approaching the time. China has indeed embraced globalization since the last three decades. Despite this, its stronghold to its culture is still very evident. This is because China is considered as a past-oriented culture country. Countries that fall under this category have a culture that is largely leaned towards the past; they see their future as a repetition of their past experiences. Moreover, they have high respect and regard for their collective historical experiences and their ancestors. As per David Thomas’ description of the country, China embraces its tradition and culture of ancestor worship and has strong pride of its customary and cultural persistence for over thousands of years (73). The Chinese society holds the perspective that their past is their guide on how to live their lives in the present. According to an old Chinese proverb, â€Å"Consider the past and you will know the present† (Quotations). Work Cited Riggs, James, et al. Industrial Organization and Management. Manila, Philippines: McGraw-Hill, Inc. , 1980. Lo, Vincent. Chinese Business Culture: Guanxi, An Important Chinese Business Element. 17 March 2005. 01 May 2009 http://chinese-school. netfirms. com/guanxi. html Thomas, David. Cross-Cultural Management: Essential Concepts Second Ed. California: Sage Publications. 2008. Quotations. 14 February 2008. 01 May 2009. http://www1. bbiq. jp/quotations/past. htm

Isabel Allende?s ?Two Words :: essays research papers

Loss and Survival in Isabel Allende’s â€Å"Two Words† Because Belisa Crepusculario had such a difficult childhood in which she experienced so much loss in her life, she is forced to become a stronger person both mentally and physically to survive such devastating circumstances. It will ultimately be this strong sense of survival that she develops through these experiences of great loss, which will guide her through the survival of life threatening situations. Belisa had a rough childhood. She was born into a family that was very poor. On top of dealing with poverty, Belisa also had to deal with living in a place that wasn’t suited very well for inhabitants. This quote explains her childhood quite well. â€Å"Belisa Crepusculario had been born into a family so poor they did not even have names to give their children. She came into the world and grew up in an inhospitable land where some years the rains became avalanches of water that bore everything away before them and others when not a drop fell from the sky and the sun swelled to fill the horizon and the world became a desert. Until she was twelve, Belisa had no occupation or virtue other than having withstood hunger and the exhaustion of centuries† (10). I believe that this quote sets up the rest of the story about Belisa because it portrays her as someone who endured many hardships as a young child and those are what helped her become a stronger person for those hardships. Belisa also had to endure great loss of family members as a young child. She was the only child out of her five siblings to survive a horrible drought that swept through the area where she lived, that claimed her four siblings. This quote explains those circumstances. â€Å"During one interminable drought, it fell to her to bury four younger brothers and sisters; when she realized that her turn was next, she decided to set out across the plains in the direction of the sea, in hopes that she might trick death along the way† (10). I believe that her strong will to survive is what made her leave home, because she did not want to just whither away into death like the rest of her family had done. She wants to live and that was quite evident. While Belisa is making her way toward the sea, she encounters others who are doing likewise, to avoid the great drought.

Alcohol and its Effects Essay -- essays research papers

Alcohol and its Effects   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alcohol is a substance that has become a part of the social settings in today’s world. Many people can say they have drunk alcohol and most can even remember their first sip of beer. Whether it was given to us by our parents or at a social engagement, everyone has encountered alcohol in their lives. But as responsible people, have we ever stopped to realize that we are taking a drug in to our system that is both harmful and addictive? Alcohol affects a wide range of digestive-system disorders such as inflammation of pancreas and cirrhosis of the liver. The central and peripheral nervous systems can be permanently damaged causing blackouts, hallucinations, and extreme tremor may occur. As if the there was not enough effects from alcohol, vitamin deficiency is also one of the major effects cause by alcohol causing folate and thiamine deficiencies. Though there are a variety of drinking patterns and the range of injuries among alcohol abusers, some are mild an d can recover on their own with the right tools and techniques. Others are critical and need hospitalization and prolong rehabilitation with custodian supervision.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ten percent of the adult drinkers in the United States are considered alcoholics or at least they experience drinking problems to some degree. There is about 5% of ethyl alcohol in a beer, 7-14% in table wine, 20% in fortified wind such as Sherry, and 40% in distilled spirits a...

Computer Crimes Ethics

March 17, 2013 March 17, 2013 David Miller: Portrait of a White-Collar Criminal David Miller: Portrait of a White-Collar Criminal Christine Quinones business info systems with lab Professor williams devry university Christine Quinones business info systems with lab Professor williams devry university Table of Contents How does Miller fit the profile of the average fraud perpetrator? How does he differ? How did these characteristics make him difficult to detect?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Page 3 Explain the three elements of the opportunity triangle (commit, conceal, convert), and discuss how Miller accomplished each when embezzling funds from Associated Communications. What specific concealment techniques did Miller use?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 3 What pressures motivated Miller to embezzle? How did Miller rationalize his actions?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 4 Miller had a framed T-shirt in his office that said, â€Å"He who dies with the most toys wins. † What does this tell you about Miller?What lifestyle red flags could have tipped off the company to the possibility of fraud?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 5 Why do companies hesitate to prosecute white-collar criminals? What are the consequences of not prosecuting? How could law enforcement officials encourage more prosecution?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 5 What could th e victimized companies have done to prevent Miller’s embezzlement?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Page 6 David L. Miller: Portrait of a White-Collar Criminal Question 1:How does Miller fit the profile of the average fraud perpetrator? How does he differ? How did these characteristics make him difficult to detect? Mr. Miller is a very sad case. He has all the qualifications of a stellar employee, but those traits are only there to mask who he truly is. He fits the average profile for the average fraud perpetrator because of the following: * The vast majority of fraud perpetrators spend everything that they steal. Only a very small percentage invest the money. Mr.Miller spent all the money and thus it explains why he stole from a new employer in order to repay the prior one. * Many white-collar criminals are stellar employees until that very moment when they are caught. They are always eager, work many days and long hours and are reliable employees. * Employers viewed Mr. Miller as an honest employee and it was because of this trust that he was placed in positions of sensitivity. * Mr. Miller had the life and behaved in the manner of your average citizen and did not raise any flags. He was an educated family man with values and good psychological framework.Even though he has some of the same traits as your average fraud perpetrator, he was harder to spot because of the many ways that he differed. Mr. Miller was not unhappy nor was he vengeful towards his employer. He also had never been convicted of his prior transgressions, and there were various. Normally, most of the fraud perpetrators are first time offenders and not serial offender as Mr. Miller has proven to be. This type of character is very difficult to spot because they do not tend to stand ou t. White-collar criminals are very educated talented individuals and are the perfect employee.No one would think that they would be capable of such deviant behavior. These people are placed in position of trust are usually work very hard and long hours for the employee. It is sad because there are many employees who possess these traits, but are truly honest and have the company’s best interest at heart. Question 2: Explain the three elements of the opportunity triangle (commit, conceal, convert), and discuss how Miller accomplished each when embezzling funds from Associated Communications. What specific concealment techniques did Miller use?The three elements to the opportunity triangle are as follows: * Commit – for this instance the perpetrator commits the fraud by taking something that is of value to the victim. For corporations this could manifest itself in the form of money and the corruption of financial records in order to conceal the fraud. A great example of this was displayed when he was able to convince not one but two senior officers into signing various checks with the excuse of â€Å"in case something happens† to sway them into signing before they were to leave on vacation. Conceal – to conceal is to hide, so for this to occur the perpetrator must try to conceal their crime. Accounting must be kept in balance in order to avoid from being discovered. They normally do this by increasing other assets or decreasing corporate liabilities and or equities. I think about lying. It is often too easy to say one, but to conceal that lie takes skill and time and perhaps more lies. On one of Mr. Miller’s transgressions he concealed his fraud through doctoring of records and removal of checks. He concealed a particular theft by retrieving canceled checks from the bank and taking the recordings and destroying the evidence.Then to further conceal what he did, he hid the amounts of the money that he stole into other expense acc ounts in order to be able to reconcile the books. Internal controls are in place for a reason and just because someone is in a position of trust, these should not be ignored and for this particular occurrence they were overlooked due to too much trust. * Convert – normally to convert is to take something that is stolen and converting it to cash. This could occur in the form of inventory or company equipment. However, Mr. Miller did not do either of these. His crime was done more indirectly.Mr. Miller was able to forge checks to himself and deposit them within his personal account. Even though checks were signed by approved officers, the intended use for the check was not approved and constitutes fraud on behalf of Mr. Miller. Question 3: What pressures motivated Miller to embezzle? How did Miller rationalize his actions? I do not believe that Mr. Miller had a lot of pressures. However, he stated, after undergoing therapy that his problem was a disease and went as far as to co mpare it to alcoholism and gambling, but this to me is an excuse or a way to rationalize what he had done.He felt that he needed to steal and have all the luxuries to be liked by his peers; which is sad because he was liked, but not for the reasons he thought, but by his working capabilities. You know you are guilty of something if you have to rationalize what you are doing. I did not notice too many explanations other than Mr. Miller had to steal from his new employer in order to repay the old one. Nonetheless, I feel that he truly believed his own excuse that he was simply borrowing and not really stealing. Sometimes our rationalizations of our actions are so powerful that we can even fool ourselves.Question 4: Miller had a framed T-shirt in his office that said, â€Å"He who dies with the most toys wins. † What does this tell you about Miller? What lifestyle red flags could have tipped off the company to the possibility of fraud? I truly feel sorry for Mr. Miller. His life seemed to be centered around money and materialistic obsessions. That shirt and his behavior showed his desire for money and power, but above all to be recognized by friends and peers. In the end it was Mr. Miller’s extravagant way of living in comparison to his salary proved to be his undoing.When you have a salary of just $130,000 a year, you cannot afford the â€Å"toys† that he had. He had overall a large house, a condo on Myrtle Beach, tailored suits, monogrammed shirts, plenty of jewelry, gifts for relatives and above all the two Mercedes-Benz sedans that he just so happened to possess. In the synopsis there was no mention of his wife working, but with his salary and their 3 children, there was no reason for her to work and this logic is what led me to believe how his salary to possession ratio would raise a few red flags. Question 5:Why do companies hesitate to prosecute white-collar criminals?What are the consequences of not prosecuting? How could law enforcem ent officials encourage more prosecution? Even though we see in the news about CEO’s and CFO’s being prosecuted for fraud and embezzlement, in actuality, fraud against a corporation happens more frequently than one would think. The following are a few reasons why I feel that corporations are hesitant to prosecute white-collar criminals: * Lack of knowledge – many of the law enforcement agencies, attorneys or lawyers lack the knowledge in how to properly handle these types of cases.As technology use becomes ever so prevalent, the task is becoming more difficult as computers are a whole new playing field that is yet to be learned. * Aloofness by Society – unless the loss happens to you, society is more concerned with crimes of violence against another than monetary. The internal theft of funds within a corporation are seen as just that an internal problem. * Difficulty Prosecuting – unless you are lucky and have a confession from the perpetrator, lik e in Mr. Miller’s case to which he confessed in every event, you have a costly and lengthy case that will prove to be rather hard to prove.Prosecution can sometimes cost more than the theft itself and it is not seen as an incentive to prosecute. * Lack of understanding on what computer fraud really is. Computers and the internet are pretty new things and as such the laws and ways to prosecute are very vague and hard to understand. * Guilt on the outcome of the perpetrators family. Because Mr. Miller in every event promised restitution and had a wife with 3 children, the companies felt that prosecuting was heartless and they did not wish to cause harm to the family.One corporation, Crest even hired the attorney to represent Mr. Miller. * Negative shadow against the corporation – Companies do not like anything that could hinder their public image. Mr. Miller’s transgressions would cause a very public trial and a lot of investors would have been involved. This woul d have caused many to remove their investment. Overall, the corporation would suffer greatly. * Knowledge that their weaknesses would be exposed. Lack of trust in the internal controls or any discovery of weaknesses would have caused a lot of future damage against a corporation.People are creatures of trust and habit and once trust is broken, it is very hard to return and provide that trust again. This would hurt future business that the corporation would have. Look at Enron, AIG, and Bernie Madoff, to name a few. * My favorite of all would be those that are prosecuted and the outcome is favorable to the victim, the perpetrator gets very light sentences. Many go to minimum security prisons, work camps that have certain luxuries. Because of this many corporations do not even bother in spending the additional funds in prosecuting these cases.The above named are mere excuses and to not prosecute fraud causes more harm. It allows for the perpetrator to move on to commit fraud against an other corporation, like in Mr. Miller’s case. By having this exposure, corporations feel that they will feel that they will look to others as being weak and will encourage others to commit fraud against them. When someone is not punished for their transgressions that person will not learn and feel that they can get away with it again if they get caught. Law enforcement officials are stuck and all they can do is encourage others to come forward and report the offenses.Corporations need to know that if they take action that there will be a support system and their voices will not be lost. They need to be sure that the perpetrator will be convicted accordingly depending upon their transgressions. They need to be made an example of, so that the public know that this behavior is not tolerated and it is a serious offense that will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law. Question 6:What could the victimized companies have done to prevent Miller’s embezzlement? When I read the synopsis, I was looking for how Mr.Miller committed many of the frauds, but not much detail was revealed. However, the best way that the corporations could have avoided this was to have better internal controls and adhering to them. I would have prevented some of the thefts by doing the following: * Having better controls of the checks and the signing of checks. * Secondary looks at the monthly reconciliations and the bank statements. * Provide a list of all check deposits with the subsequent invoice explaining the reason for the expense. No employee should have the level of trust and freedom that Mr. Miller was given.There always needs to be a system of checks and balances in place in order to ensure and prevent this from happening. I can understand that these positions merit trust, but there should be a second person looking at the financials to curb any temptation for even the most honest to commit fraud. Had the first employer chosen to prosecute none of this would have happened. However, the future employers could have avoided all of this had they just bothered to do a more thorough background check on Mr. Miller. There they would have discovered the reasons for his separation from his prior employment.

How to Write an Introduction for a Biology Research Paper

How to Write an Introduction for a Biology Research Paper You may be wondering how to go about writing an introduction to your Biology research paper that will work for you, and catch the attention of your readers. The easiest way would be to ask for help from our writers. Using our services to get the required assistance. Our skilled writers have already helped thousands of students, experiencing all types of difficulty with their essay papers, to sort out their most annoying problem. Most of the students who ask for help from our experienced writers are those who usually have not had the time to complete their essays, while others lack the writing skills that are necessary to appropriately complete the essay papers. Those students who do not want to go through the hectic process of completing their papers also find the right kind of help at this firm. We turn the hectic times that the students experience into a calming experience, which they can benefit from. The time, while our writers prepare a paper for you, can be used for socializing with family and friends, or spending time on favorite sports hobbies and other pastime. You can be sure that your order will be completed in time, and you will have an example of a great paper, that you can use for studying. Having already helped and assisted students for many years, this organization is one of the best, equipped with resources and experience to help you until you are completely satisfied with the results. When you actually see the quality of the papers that you purchase from our company, and the reasonable amount you pay for the service, you will realize how convenient it is to work with us. Even with the high quality you can get from our service, it is nonetheless affordable for any student. In short, the money paid for our papers are always kept at the minimum, while the quality is maintained at the maximum. We make sure that all papers are written considering all the instructions given by you, and that every paper is free of plagiarism. Moreover, if you are not completely satisfied with your paper after you have received and reviewed it, do not worry much and tell your writer to revise the paper. If your revision instruction correspond to our Revision Policy, the writer will make the needed changes for free. Some companies put you through a lengthy process to get a revision and charge extra. With us, you simply log-in in and request the revisions pointing out what you specifically need revised, and it will be done at no charge. You can enjoy professional Biology research paper help from our highly qualified writers hired by CustomWritings.com!

Potassium Chloride essays

Potassium Chloride essays KCl is a compound, a combination of 2 elements: Potassium + Chloride. Potassium chloride is a colorless or white, cubic, crystalline compound. It is odorless, stable in air and highly soluble in water. Potassium chloride is soluble in water and alcohol and closely resembles common salt. Potassium chloride occurs pure in nature as the mineral sylvite and is found combined in many minerals and in brines and ocean water. It is produced from sylvinite, a sodium chloridepotassium chloride mineral that is refined by fractional crystallization and by a flotation process. The primary use of potassium chloride is in the production of fertilizers; it is also used in chemical manufacture. Potassium chloride is also used in fire extinguishers, which use stored pressure to discharge the agent, and the fire is extinguished mainly by the interruption of the combustion chain reaction. Potassium chloride has a variety of uses ranging from the main ingredient in soil fertilizers to being the agent by which other potassium salts are created. These compounds are used in making soaps, detergents, and other water absorbing compounds used in making glass and textile dyes. In the winter, KCl is also used as a salt to melt ice on sidewalks and roadways. Potassium chloride is also used in baby formulas and cheeses. For example, Colby, Swiss, parmesan and hard cheeses. It is also used in snack foods such as pretzels and corn chips. Welding fluxes and products also contain some form of potassium chloride. Potassium chloride has a melting point of 772 degrees Celsius and a boiling point of about 1500 degrees Celsius. It also has a relative density of two. Potassium chloride has an interesting property of being more soluble than sodium chloride in hot water but less soluble in cold water. Potassium chloride is also a prescription drug used to replace potassium in people with low blood levels of potassium, to prevent pot ...

Biofuel - today essays

Biofuel - today essays In todays world day in and day out we see fleets of cars, buses, two-wheelers and trucks on our streets. Poisonous fumes damaging our lungs, noise pollution deafening our ears and harried commuters fed up with their lot. Is this what mankind has come to? Imagine the situation in a few years when the existing sources of fuel are almost exhausted! Shortage of petrol, shortage of cooking gas and scarcity of fuel in industries. Prices of all types of fuel will shoot up making life all the more expensive. Utter chaos! That is what the scenario will be especially in the major cities of the world. Isnt it time we looked out for alternative sources! Energy is the key for food, housing, production and transportation. There is nothing more important for a developing country like India than a good energy plan. Therefore biofuel is todays extreme need. Well, what is this biofuel? In contrast to fuel based on products derived from the petrochemical industry, biofuel is based on raw material derived from living organisms and therefore can be classified as a renewable resource. Biofuel can be of microbial or of plant origin. Of the microbial biofuel products, three basic types are fuel alcohol, biogas which is also known as methane and hydrogen. At present there are 2 main markets for fuel alcohol, Brazil (Proalcohol) and U.S.A. (Gasohol) used either blended with petroleum or as 95% Ethanol) water mixture in purpose-built engines. Biogas is the term used for anaerobic methane production, a biochemical reaction in which CO2 is the ultimate electron acceptor producing either CO or CH4. Since both of these products are volatile they are relatively easy to obtain in pure form. Biological hydrogen production is done mostly during nitrogen fixation. Biofuel has millions of uses as well. One of the first benefits Rudolph Diesel a german engineer said, The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may s ...

Major Issues and The Place of Traditional Religion Essay

Major Issues and The Place of Traditional Religion - Essay Example n has mostly been undertaken by foreign observers who unfortunately have been less analytical due to their lack of knowledge of African languages, which are normally rich in cultural expression and linguistic (Olupona, 1991). Olupona examines the reasons that made the study of African religion study to suffer serious setbacks in the initial efforts by scholars to get a unit of study from it. According to Olupona, the impact of Christianity and particularly its emphasis of particularity did much damage to the overall study of the African traditional religion and the rightful recognition of its experience. This is essentially what has contributed to the many difficulties bedeviling the study of Africa religion to date, among them being the problem of sources and what could be referred as the goal of Africa religion study. Other problems that have been besetting this study that Olupona has pointed is the size of the Africa as a continent and derogatory appellations like â€Å"dark continent, not to mention the multitude and complexity of each and every quality of Africa’s various language, climate, culture and such like. Another issue that Olupona has examined in depth in this chapter is the problem of the consequences of the European settlements that have wiped out whole cultures and obliterated lots and lots of racial memories, consequently establishing what has been referred to as â€Å"a bit of whiteness† syndrome in the African continent. He also explores the unrepairable blow that has been caused to the Africa traditional religion by the western education, mercantile or civil services crisscrossing the Africa continent (Olupona, 1991). In this chapter Olupona look at the effect of traditional religion to today’s South Africa. According to him it is difficult to talk of a single world view in Africa because of the cultural heterogeneity that predominate Africa. He proceeds to interrogate the issue of whether worldview can be differentiated in the late 20th

Self-Disclosure, Gender, and Communication Essay

Self-Disclosure, Gender, and Communication - Essay Example By divulging inner feelings, fears and preferences through daily quality sharing of information, Orbuch emphasized that long term romantic relationships are enforced. I definitely agree to the points contended giving support to the self-disclosure as instrumental in revealing new and exciting information that could prolong the interest and enthusiasm in a married couples’ relationship. I believe that in any interpersonal relationship, for that matter, the value of new information in diverse subjects provides the impetus for sustained interest in the relationship. The ability to pay attention to one’s partner is crucial and is enriched through quality communication that was suggested to be continually nurtured through time. I can definitely relate to the article on self-disclosure in relationships, especially on the portion which explains that self-disclosure actually manifests a â€Å"sharing (of) your private feelings, fears, doubts and perceptions with your partnerâ €  (Schoenberg, 2011, p. 7). By revealing intimate feelings, emotions, preferences with one’s partner, a portion of oneself is virtually exposed and it is as if one is committing oneself by confiding private matters that only the lifelong partner is expected to know. It creates a strong bond linking two married couples together. In this regard, I agree that self-disclose is important and directly related to satisfaction in relationship because, as abovementioned, the ability to confide to one’s partner requires trust and commitment and a deep understanding that whatever deep secrets are divulged would not be relayed to others.

Universal Child Care Tax Benefit Reform in Canada Assignment

Universal Child Care Tax Benefit Reform in Canada - Assignment Example This essay elucidates on the tax reform nuances, regarding increase of childcare tax benefit in Canada. This enhanced child benefits structure aims towards replacing the preceding Child Tax Credit benefits. There has been some sort of controversy regarding the eligibility of the child tax benefits. The basic guideline is that, that the major beneficiaries should be families with the minor children. To qualify for this, there has to be the aspect of completing a specified Application form. Completion of that form ensures that all the records are safely kept for the sake of subsequent analysis For the past decade, international organizations and industrialized countries have shown increased interest with regards to government involvements in child care. The concept behind this fact is that; that there is a general consideration of subsidizing child care programs. This tax measure often affects the entire citizens. However, most empirical studies put greater focus on the preschool children and the systems of the means-tested transfers. Based on the investigation, regarding the effects of the Canadian child care universal reforms on the parent’s participation in labor force; it worked towards shedding some light since a group with younger children had varying responses from their counterparts who had older children. it can be concluded that this tax measure tend promote some sense of horizontal equality in one way or the other. This mainly occurs when it comes to the gender-based issues

Modernity and Modernism Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modernity and Modernism Analysis - Essay Example The essay "Modernity and Modernism Analysis" investigates modernity and modernism. Modernism refers to the way in which human beings seek to implement an aspect of modernity in everything around them. Modernism was discovered after the First World War. At the time, people knew that there was an aspect of modernity in their lives. They had the opportunity to advance what they needed. After the world war, modernism was mainly used to create strategies and weapon aimed at self-protection. The aspect of modernism led to the creation more modernized weapons and developed more complex war strategies. This is a perfect example of modernism. In an argument by Horvà ¡th modernism does not limit itself in a specific paradigm that it needs to change. In the 18th and 19th centuries, theorists and philosophers created ideas, projects and theories that tend to explain the existence of particular phenomena and how to advance them. Aesthetic refers to the ability of an object to appreciate art or b eauty. Beauty and art can be referred to the aesthetic properties an object. However, aesthetic properties are artificial. They are works that denote art and beauty. In an argument by Greenhalgh art has developed from generation to generation as human beings become more appreciative of nature. The aesthetic properties of creation have developed significantly with the exposure the society to the modern way of doing art. The relationship between art and its aesthetic properties is based on the creativity level.

Oedipus Rex Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Oedipus Rex - Essay Example However, since he was predestined, one can argue that it was meant to happen, thus he was never guilty. As in the play, we see that there is freewill. It could be noted that Oedipus could pass the fight off when he was hit by the chariot instead of killing the man (who happened to be his father) but there was still the factor of predestination. He was meant to kill the King and was meant to marry his mother. There are options in which he can actually escape his fate but can’t because, you can’t escape fate. His sins two greatest sins are killing his father and marrying his mother. In present times, that is called parricide and incest. As far as we are concerned, he was provoked by the man in the chariot so that his actions can be named as defensive, even if he killed his father. The man also did not know that he hit his son and turned aggressive. So even if parricide was done, Oedipus is still innocent because it can be said that he is doing self defense. He is also inn ocent when he married his mother because he did not know that it was his mother! He was adopted and he did not know who his real parents were. If this were to happen these times, it would have to be socially sanctioned too, but not to the point where they would self-mutilate themselves (Oedipus blinding himself) or commit suicide because of humiliation.

Modernity and Modernism Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modernity and Modernism Analysis - Essay Example The essay "Modernity and Modernism Analysis" investigates modernity and modernism. Modernism refers to the way in which human beings seek to implement an aspect of modernity in everything around them. Modernism was discovered after the First World War. At the time, people knew that there was an aspect of modernity in their lives. They had the opportunity to advance what they needed. After the world war, modernism was mainly used to create strategies and weapon aimed at self-protection. The aspect of modernism led to the creation more modernized weapons and developed more complex war strategies. This is a perfect example of modernism. In an argument by Horvà ¡th modernism does not limit itself in a specific paradigm that it needs to change. In the 18th and 19th centuries, theorists and philosophers created ideas, projects and theories that tend to explain the existence of particular phenomena and how to advance them. Aesthetic refers to the ability of an object to appreciate art or b eauty. Beauty and art can be referred to the aesthetic properties an object. However, aesthetic properties are artificial. They are works that denote art and beauty. In an argument by Greenhalgh art has developed from generation to generation as human beings become more appreciative of nature. The aesthetic properties of creation have developed significantly with the exposure the society to the modern way of doing art. The relationship between art and its aesthetic properties is based on the creativity level.

Legal Environment Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Legal Environment Analysis - Essay Example London hotels generated daily profit - expressed as income before fixed charges (IBFC) - of 47.75 per available room compared to 57.46 the same month a year earlier." (Hospitality Trends, 2009) Although the trends in the hospitality industry at the levels of the hotel chains are not satisfactory the company is going to be the part of the small firms which comprises 99% of the UK business community. The tourism industry of UK comprises of 127,000 businesses in which 80% of the businesses have a turnover of 250,000 pounds per annum. "The London outlook by business segment has also been revised since the Q4 2007 Hotel Market Outlook report when it was expected that the luxury market would lead the sector in 2008. The model now suggests that the mid-market sector will be the front runner, seeing revPAR growth of 7.3% during the year, before falling back to 4.2% in 2009" (Hotel Market Outlook, 2008). The main source of competitive advantage in services industry is efficient service for th e customers. Supply chain plays an important role in the efficient service provision to the customers. "The goal of a supply chain should be to maximise overall supply chain profitability. Supply chain profitability is the difference between the revenue generated from the customer and the total cost incurred across all stages of the supply chain. Supply chain decisions have a large impact on the success or failure of each firm because they significantly influence both the revenue generated as well as the cost incurred. Successful supply chains manage flows of product, information, and funds to provide a high level of product availability to the customer while keeping costs low." (Chopra & Meindl, 2004; 44) The company will also use the same competitive technique in order to keep abreast with the challenges posed due to the high level of competition in the market. Industry Categories or types of establishment Hotels: These are the most luxurious provision of hospitality services (including conference and banqueting), resort, budget and bed and breakfast. Pubs, bars and nightclubs: These are the managed houses where alcoholic beverages are sold. Contract food service providers: These hospitality companies provide services such as schools or hospital catering provision; food and drink and facilities management at different organizations. They also provide services such as housekeeping linen and security. Hospitality services companies: These companies provide support to the provision of in house food and drink. They can be retailers or local authorities. Restaurants: Restaurants are the most popular category of the hospitality business found in UK. These include the Fast food establishments, cafes and coffee shops, mainstream restaurants and fine dining. The proposed business will belong to the same category. The hospitality business will be a restaurant with Oriental theme. Reason for

The true nature of Richards character Essay Example for Free

The true nature of Richards character Essay In his opening soliloquy, the true nature of Richards character is revealed, his villainy being divulged in the devious plans that he has plotted in order to usurp the throne. An array of puns, metaphors, and antitheses are used with ironic flair to convey the undertones in his monologue, granting the audience valuable insight to the play. The language that is used masterfully conveys the sarcasm in Richardss words, this being seen in the antithesis of winter and summer in the first two lines. The contrasting metaphors in these lines are seemingly used as a tool to relay the contrary meanings in his words, suggesting that what he speaks is not what he thinks. This hence serves as a hint to the fact that he is not entirely happy about the victory of the son of York- a pun for the house of York, as it was followed by the crowning of his brother. Also, it is evident that Richard is not agreeable to changes in his life, this being exemplified in another antithesis seen in stern alarums changed to merry meetings (1.1.7). In fact, he explicitly speaks of this unhappiness in the line where he states that in this weak piping time of peace, he has no delight to pass way the time (1.1.24-25). As such, it is clear that Richard is one who is innately evil; he is never satisfied in peaceful times, with chaos seemingly the only thing would truly allow him to feel alive. Furthermore, the covert bitterness that he feels is subtlely made known with the suggestive and deliberate comparison of wartime activities and the present ones; And now, instead of mounting barbed steeds.he capers nimbly in a ladys chamber (1.1.10-12). With this, he implies that the glorious tasks that he has accomplished in war have been reduced to frivolity in peacetime; spending his time in the company of women. In the subsequent lines, Richard proceeds on to an extensive elaboration on the ugliness of his physique; the deformities that separate him from society. The assonance in cheated of feature emphasizes and reminds the audience of the extent of his ugliness, perhaps, also suggestive of his moral deformities. Once again, the bitterness is evident in his tone as he claims that nature is unfair towards him hence preventing him from proving a lover. He then goes on to proclaim that he is thus determined to prove a villain (1.1.30), as though the fact that nature has create him as such was reason enough, and the sole motivations for his evil ways. Here, it would seem that Richard is attempting to find justification for his wrongdoings, and that the evil in his nature is merely a by-product of the unfairness of his physical appearance. Apart from the soliloquy, it would be difficult for the audience to grasp Richards character as he scarcely exhibits such honesty throughout the play. As such, the fact that the soliloquy is used as a dramatic device in Richards opening speech is extremely important; it gives the audience an accurate insight to his true character. Finally, Richard launches into the evil plans that he has made in order to acquire the throne, conveying them with little feeling or guilt. This is stark proof of his ruthlessness, also serving as a foreshadow to the further evil that he was to commit with the progression of the plot. It is interesting to note that Shakespeare chooses to put Richards self-depreciating lines before his plans. This is perhaps, done so to allow the audience to feel some pity for him before they are enlightened to his evil, and also understand the motivations behind all his wrongdoing. In the conveyance of his plans, Richard shows brutal honesty in his admittance of his evil nature and compares himself to his brother, King Edward. Once again, the use of antithesis is seen in the comparison of his brothers true and just nature to his own false and treacherous one. Here, Richard shamelessly reveals to the audience his plans to exploit the good character of his own brother, a further affirmation of his evil nature. Richards use of language in the soliloquy presents him as a witty and charismatic individual to the audience. In spite of his evil nature and deformed physique, Richard appeals to the audience by speaking directly to them in all but brutal honesty with regards to himself. His interesting choice of formal and figurative elements of language also makes him a dramatic and intriguing character, allowing the audience to appreciate the side of him which is not seen in other parts of the play. In Laurence Olivier and Al Pacinos performance of the opening soliloquy, the audience is exposed to very different interpretations of Richards character. While Olivier begins his monologue facing the audience, Pacino does his with his back constantly faced to the camera, with only one side of his face revealed. The choice of Pacinos body positioning creates a sinister impression perhaps, a reflection of Richards dark nature. On the other hand, the fact that Olivier chooses to allow a full frontal view of his face depicts the straightforwardness of Richards character, an aspect that is overtly presented in his soliloquy. Also, while Oliviers intonation throughout his monologue is almost delivered in a sing-song manner, Pacino alternates between quiet utterances and whispers. This contrasting intonation puts forth another difference in the actors interpretation of Richard; while Olivier is spirited and confident, Pacinos presentation is more subdued and seemingly, defeated. This sense of defeat is also apparent in the manner in which Pacino lets himself fall back against the wall behind him as he speaks of his physical appearance, a subtle indication to the resignation that he feels. However, it is important to note that there is one similarity in the way that both actors deliver their lines; the conveyance of a sense of bitterness which is especially apparent in the lines of self-analysis. While Olivier relays this with the rising of his voice, Pacino does so in a much more subtle manner; with the down turning of his lips. The differences in the actors portrayal of Richard can also be observed in the different aspects of mise-en-scene. One such difference can be seen in the costumes; Oliviers Richard is garbed in richly coloured and stylised clothes, the emphasis being evidently put on his kingly status. On the other hand, Pacino does not dress the like; opting to instead don costumes that make him appear plain and quite common. As such, it is evident that Pacino is attempting to instil a sense of realism to the interpretation of Richard perhaps, the fact that apart from the riches and status, he is just an ordinary man. In addition, the types of lighting used in both scenes also create a very different atmosphere; while Olivier makes use of artificial lighting to simulate daytime, Pacino does the opposite, using low-key lighting which shrouds his surroundings in darkness and shadows. The result of using low-key lighting has a pronounced effect on the audiences view of Pacino in the play as his face is almost always hidden in the shadows, a sense of mystery is created around his character. Interestingly, the contrast of the greenery visible through the windows to the dark interior walls in Pacinos scene reflects a covert facet of Richards inner world; he is caged by the demons within himself, living in a darkness that separates him from everyone else. The manner in which the audience interprets both scenes is also affected by the editing of the shots. In comparison to Oliviers six shots in seven minutes, Pacino does eighty-nine in the same time span, with the speed of the cuts creating a sense of spontaneity that is often seen in theatre performances. (Method acting and Pacinos looking for Richard, pg.7). Also, the fast sequences can be seen as a reflection of Richards mind; it moves at great speeds as he is constantly plotting against his brothers and thinking of ways to usurp the throne. The constant switching of scenes between Pacinos soliloquy and the various commentaries also creates a sense of suspense for the audience, compelling them to wait in anticipation and at the same time, allowing a better understanding of Richards character. More importantly, the fast rhythm of Pacinos play keeps the audiences on their toes, creating a sense of constant change that is ever present in the chaotic world that Richard thrives in. Hence, it is apparent that the Richard that Olivier and Pacino attempts to present are vastly different. The aspects of mise-en-scene and the fashion in which they act and deliver their lines serve to further illustrate this fact. While Oliviers play is highly dramatized with fake medievalism, Pacino chooses to put forth a much more realistic version, creating a Richard that is much more relevant and comprehensible to the contemporary audience. References Shakespeare, William. Richard III. 2nd revised Ed. New York, Signet Classics. 1998. Print. Su, Peirui. Method Acting and Pacinos Looking for Richard. CLC web: Comparative Literature and Culture. Volume 6 Issue 1. Purdue University Press. (March 2004). Web.

The Indigenous People Taino History Essay

The Indigenous People Taino History Essay Jamaica is one of the islands in the Caribbean Sea. Its East to Mexico and South to the United States. Its the third largest island and the largest English-speaking country in the Caribbean. Jamaicas location is near Cuba and the island of Hispaniola. The capital of Jamaica is Kingston. Its also the largest city both in size and population. Jamaica has an area of 10,991 km2. It has a population of 2,889,187 inhabitants. Jamaica is an independent nation. It was the first country of the Caribbean that gained independence. English is the official language in Jamaica. Creole is an English-African dialect that is used all over the island. Its also called Jamaican patois. Its not a written language. Many Jamaicans can speak Spanish. Many of the habitants are descendants of the Spanish colonist. The habitants have a rhythmic and melodic intonation. History The indigenous people, Arawak also called Taino- settled on the island in between 4000 and 1000 BC. They came from South-America. Christopher Columbus discovered the island on 14 May 1494. He named the island Santiago (Saint-James), but the name wasnt used by the original inhabitants. They called the island for Xaymaca, which later became Jamaica. Columbus claimed the island for the Spain. From 1509, the island was under Spanish rule, until the British took it from them in 1655. During this period, the aborigines were enslaved by the Spaniards. Some people were sent to Spain as slaves. Those who remained worked as slaves on the island or got killed. When France exiled the Jews from their country in 1394, many fled to the New World. Jamaica became a refuge for the Jews by 1660. They arrived after Columbus settled on the island. In 1660, the majority of the population was white people, but by early 1670s, the blacks number increased, due to the slave imports. The British invaded Jamaica in 1665. After freeing their slaves, the Spanish colonist fled. The slaves escaped to the mountains. These people were called the Jamaican Maroons. They lived in peace and freedom in the mountains for several generations. In 1807, the British imported Indian and Chinese slaves to produce sugar. The slaves descendants still lives in Jamaica today. Jamaica gradually gained their independence from the British. In 1958 the island joined other colonies of the British in the Caribbean and formed the Federation of West Indies. Jamaica finally became fully independent from Britain on 6 August 1962, when they left the Federation. Two political parties where formed not long after that and the first election of a Prime Minister where held. Jamaicas economy grew stronger after that. The island opened up to the rest of the world and tourism grew. Government Jamaica is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The head of the state is Queen Elizabeth II, but she does not rule the country. She appoints a governor general, who represents her. The monarch, along with the governor general serves ceremonial roles. The head of the government, the Prime Minister, is elected by the citizens of Jamaica. He is the one taking important decisions when it comes to ruling the country. The monarch gets aided by him when its time to choose a new governor general. The Prime Minister nominates a candidate, and its up to the monarch to appoint the governor general. The parliament is built up like the British Parliament. Its made up of a Senate of 21 members and a House of Representatives that consist of 60 members. Religion Christianity is the main religion in Jamaica. The Anglican Church and Church of God are the most practiced. There are also other variations of Christianity practiced in Jamaica, such as Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Roman Catholic and Pentecostal. Another religion is Rastafarianism, a religion influenced by African spirituality. Buddhism, Hinduism, Bahai and Jehovahs witnesses are other major religions in Jamaica. Obeahism  is a form of Voodoo that is used in Jamaica. Its rarely heard of. The Obeah mans role is the guide evil souls to bring good or bad fortune, using black magic. Practicing of Obeahism is a considered a crime in Jamaica, but the people still use it and risks to be imprisoned. Culture The majority of the population is people with colored skin and comes from many different places in the world. Jamaican food is influenced by different cultures and ethnic groups that settled down on the island: Taino, Spanish, Indian, English and Chinese. The food is usually strong and spicy. Music is important in Jamaica. The Jamaican music is known all over the world, thanks to Bob Marley and other great Jamaican musicians. The most popular type of music is reggae. The melody is catchy and easy to enjoy, a reason why its so popular worldwide. There is many more style of music. Jamaican folk music has been influenced by many cultures over the years. The biggest influence on the Jamaican music is African music. Another type of Jamaican music is the religious music. It is a type of music influenced by the smaller religions on the island: Kumina, Pocomania and Rastafari. Theres a lot of drumming and chanting. The songs also have vocal and other instruments. They are often performed at vigils and services. Along with the music comes dance. The Jamaican people are known for their passion for dance. Some popular dances on the island are the jonkonnu, a dance performed at Christmas time by slaves, and ska. Similar to the music, the type of dances in Jamaica are influenced by many different cultures. Other facts The national drink of Jamaica is rum. There are several famous people from Jamaica, such as Usain Bolt, Bob Marley, Jimmy Cliff, Sean Paul and Lennox Lewis. Sources www.jamaicans.com/childsguide/facts.shtml www.mapsofworld.com/jamaica/information-on-jamaica/facts.html www.globeaware.org/jamaican-culture www.wikipedia.com www.my-island-jamaica.com/famous_people_from_jamaica.html

Gravity Essay -- essays research papers

Gravity is really an unknown force. We can define it as a field of influence, and that it effects the entire existence of the universe. Some people think that gravity consists of particles called gravitons, which travel at the speed of light. The only thing we do know is how gravity operates in different parts of our universe. Without gravity, there would be no space and time. There is a legend that says that Galileo once dropped two objects off the Leaning Tower of Pisa to show that the heavier of the two objects dropped faster. If a feather and hammer were the two objects he used then obviously the hammer would hit the ground first. This is due to air resistance, which is the force air exerts on a moving object. This force acts in the opposite direction to that of the object's motion. In the case of a falling object, air resistance pushes up as gravity pulls down, which causes the object to slow down. When Galileo's experiment was repeated on the moon, the hammer and the feather hit the ground at the exact same time. This is due to the fact that the moon has no atmosphere. Therefore, air resistance doesn't exist on the moon. Also, the amount of air resistance on an object depends on the speed, size, shape, and density of the object. The larger the surface area of the object, the greater the amount of air resistance on it. This is why feathers, leaves, and sheets of paper fall more slowly than pennies, acorns, and crumpled balls of paper. There is another legend that states that when Newton was lying against a tree in an orchard, he was struck on the head by an apple. He wondered what provided the acceleration for the apple to fall to the ground. Was this a force of the earth on the apple? If so, then the apple must exert a force on the earth according to Newton’s law of action/reaction forces. Newton applied this theory unto the planets, which orbit the sun. He found by studying astronomical data, that the force that held the earth in orbit around the sun was the same force that drew the apple toward the earth. This was the force of gravity that is given by this scary formula: F = Gm1*Gm2 gravity _______ r^2 F equals the force in Newtons, G equals the gravitational constant which is 6.67 * 10^-11 Nm^2 | kg^2, m1 and m2 equal the mass of each body in kilograms, and finally, r equals the distance between the 2 bodies in meters. If all of this i... ...for the electronic revolution of the twentieth century. Electromagnetic waves not only revolutionized our lives, but also our knowledge of the universe. Astronomers gradually opened the electromagnetic spectrum, first using visible light and then radio, x-rays and gamma rays. Each new part of the spectrum provided us with dramatic new insights into the universe. Einstein predicted gravitational waves in 1916. They have not yet been directly detected on earth, although astronomers Joe Taylor and Russell Hulse received the 1993 Nobel Prize for proof of their existence, by showing that a star system is losing energy by producing gravitational waves. Gravitational waves are a completely new spectrum. If electromagnetic waves let us see the universe, gravitational waves will let us hear the universe. They will provide us with a new sense, the sense of hearing, with which to explore the universe. Gravity is a very complicated subject, but scientists are learning more and more about it as time goes on. Contributions from people such as Newton and Einstein helped shape the way we see things today. Without them, no telling what kind of misconceptions we all might believe in today.

The Change in Scrooge’s Character :: A Christmas Carol Charles Dickens Essays

The Change in Scrooge’s Character How does dickens show the change in scrooge’s character in ‘A Christmas Carol’, look closely at the language used and how this influences the reader In 1843 Charles dickens wrote ‘A Christmas Carol’ partly to make people aware of the terrible conditions of the children of the poor. In 1843 he visited the field lane ragged school and was appalled by what he saw there/ ragged schools catered for the very poorest, hungry children who roamed the streets, trying to teach them the basic skills of reading and writing. He had also been shocked by a parliamentary report by the children’s employment commission. Dickens was the most popular novelist of the day and he soon realized that far more people would take notice of the terrible conditions of the poor if he wrote about them in a story. ‘A Christmas carol’ was published on 17th December 1843 and by the 24th he had sold 6,000 copies. Dickens called it a most prodigious success., the greatest, I think, have ever achieved. ‘A Christmas carol’ is still widely read today and appears in many versions including illustrated re-telling of the story for young children. Hardly a Christmas goes by without a version of ‘A Christmas carol’ appearing on TV in one form or another. The name of the main character, scrooge, has come into general use in the English language meaning ‘a miserly or mean person’. In ‘A Christmas carol’ Dickens shows scrooge as an evil, nasty man by using a long list of adjectives, he’s described with this sentence â€Å"Oh! But he was a tight fisted hand at the grindstone, scrooge! A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching, covetous old sinner! Hard and sharp as flint, from which no steel had ever struck out generous fire; secret, and self-contained, and as solitary as an oyster† Another way to show this is the way he talks to people, e.g. when his nephew invites him to his Christmas party but he turns him down and calls Christmas a ‘Humbug!’ and even worse, when 2 charity workers ask him for a donation for the poor children, he says send them to the work houses, if they would rather die they better do it, and decrease the surplus population. This shows how much of a cold hearted, covetous sinner he is. Dickens makes us feel like he’s an evil man, he’s selfish and says he’d rather the children die than donate his money to charity. When the ghost of Marley visited scrooge in the night, he was shocked, he first saw Marley’s face as the doorknob, then he was frightened further when the ghost of Marley opened the door from the outside when

Teen Pregnancy

On average, 700 girls are impregnated each year in The Bahamas. Twenty percent of these teen mothers have another child while they are still in their teens according to the president of the PACE Foundation, Sonia Brown. We are urging citizens to take a stand and educate our children about contraceptives and the irresponsibility and lack of knowledge that leads to teenage pregnancy. Most teens that have children find it harder to become a part of the work force because their time is more focused on their child.They are less prepared to enter the working world because they are ill prepared due to being forced to be adults at a young age. Thus, not completing school in most instances. When they enter the Job market these teens need assistance with day care and other services that they are often unable to afford due to their minimum wage Jobs that they barely qualify for. Unplanned teenage pregnancies can lead to higher high school dropout rates, higher rates of single parenthood, and lo wering scores in math and reading.Stopping teenage pregnancy requires a hands-on connection between parents and hildren, a good educational foundation, and unbiased resources. The COB Gazette is campaigning for: *Teaching Sex Education to Stop Teenage Pregnancy Government officials claim that their efforts to fght teenage pregnancy is that they already have parenthood sessions in government schools but those are not effective enough because we still have a large number of teenage pregnancies in The Bahamas today. Sex education starts in the home as well.Parents should begin introducing the subject of puberty and sex with their children at around age 5. At irst these discussions are more based on the relationships between the sexes. Schools also teach teens about the chances and effects of teenage pregnancies, though the approach will depend on each school. Teens have hormones raging through their bodies and often misunderstand how these hormones affect their choices about safe sex. Implementing a parenting class to become a part of the curriculum in Bahamian schools will help teach girls about the dedication and time it takes to be a teenage mother.The class should also include lessons on different ypes of contraceptives and birth control methods. *Providing Resources to Prevent In addition to teaching teens about teenage pregnancy, parents and school systems should provide a list of resources for teens that are contemplating having sex. These resources often include phone numbers to local support groups and locations where teens can pick up free condoms. Some school systems can even choose to hand out condoms as part of their safe sex services. *Birth Control and Teen Pregnancies Teenage girls can be placed on birth control to stop teenage pregnancies.This does not mean sexual education is no longer needed. Birth control and condoms may prevent teenage pregnancies but they will not stop the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, syphilis and gonorrhea. When choosing birth control, parents and teens have options. There are daily, monthly and tri-monthly birth control solutions. Daily birth control pills are the most common utilized by teen girls trying to prevent pregnancy. The pills need to be taken at the same time every day, however, which can be difficult for some teen girls to remember.Parents can discuss birth control options with the family physician or gynecologist. The solutions proposed should be greatly considered by the government and schools, as they would pose to be great options in helping our teenage girls. Although the pregnancy rate amongst teens has decreased by two percent over the last ten years, PACE still enrolls 100 to 150 pregnant teens a year. The age group mostly affected by this epidemic are girls ages 14 to 15. We should be making moves to encourage our young girls to make smarter choices. Teen Pregnancy On average, 700 girls are impregnated each year in The Bahamas. Twenty percent of these teen mothers have another child while they are still in their teens according to the president of the PACE Foundation, Sonia Brown. We are urging citizens to take a stand and educate our children about contraceptives and the irresponsibility and lack of knowledge that leads to teenage pregnancy. Most teens that have children find it harder to become a part of the work force because their time is more focused on their child.They are less prepared to enter the working world because they are ill prepared due to being forced to be adults at a young age. Thus, not completing school in most instances. When they enter the Job market these teens need assistance with day care and other services that they are often unable to afford due to their minimum wage Jobs that they barely qualify for. Unplanned teenage pregnancies can lead to higher high school dropout rates, higher rates of single parenthood, and lo wering scores in math and reading.Stopping teenage pregnancy requires a hands-on connection between parents and hildren, a good educational foundation, and unbiased resources. The COB Gazette is campaigning for: *Teaching Sex Education to Stop Teenage Pregnancy Government officials claim that their efforts to fght teenage pregnancy is that they already have parenthood sessions in government schools but those are not effective enough because we still have a large number of teenage pregnancies in The Bahamas today. Sex education starts in the home as well.Parents should begin introducing the subject of puberty and sex with their children at around age 5. At irst these discussions are more based on the relationships between the sexes. Schools also teach teens about the chances and effects of teenage pregnancies, though the approach will depend on each school. Teens have hormones raging through their bodies and often misunderstand how these hormones affect their choices about safe sex. Implementing a parenting class to become a part of the curriculum in Bahamian schools will help teach girls about the dedication and time it takes to be a teenage mother.The class should also include lessons on different ypes of contraceptives and birth control methods. *Providing Resources to Prevent In addition to teaching teens about teenage pregnancy, parents and school systems should provide a list of resources for teens that are contemplating having sex. These resources often include phone numbers to local support groups and locations where teens can pick up free condoms. Some school systems can even choose to hand out condoms as part of their safe sex services. *Birth Control and Teen Pregnancies Teenage girls can be placed on birth control to stop teenage pregnancies.This does not mean sexual education is no longer needed. Birth control and condoms may prevent teenage pregnancies but they will not stop the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, syphilis and gonorrhea. When choosing birth control, parents and teens have options. There are daily, monthly and tri-monthly birth control solutions. Daily birth control pills are the most common utilized by teen girls trying to prevent pregnancy. The pills need to be taken at the same time every day, however, which can be difficult for some teen girls to remember.Parents can discuss birth control options with the family physician or gynecologist. The solutions proposed should be greatly considered by the government and schools, as they would pose to be great options in helping our teenage girls. Although the pregnancy rate amongst teens has decreased by two percent over the last ten years, PACE still enrolls 100 to 150 pregnant teens a year. The age group mostly affected by this epidemic are girls ages 14 to 15. We should be making moves to encourage our young girls to make smarter choices. Teen Pregnancy Teen pregnancy is a growing epidemic in the United States. Teen girls are becoming pregnant at an alarming rate, with a lot of the pregnancies planned. With television shows broadcasting shows such as â€Å"16 and Pregnant† and â€Å"Teen Mom†, it is giving teenage girls the idea that it is alright to have premarital sex and become pregnant. It is in a way condoning teen pregnancy. I am interested in discussing teen pregnancy and the options that are out there for the teens who find themselves in this situation. I don’t think enough is being done to educate or prepare these teens about how their lives will change in the event of pregnancy. I am especially interested in this issue, because I found myself in this very situation when I was just seventeen years old. I made the decision that was best for me at the time, but wasn’t given all the support I think I needed. I didn’t have anyone to talk to who was going through what I was at the time. I think that teenagers wanting to grow up too fast, peer pressure and television, both reality and fiction, all play a huge role in this problem. I think the answer to probably not solving this problem, but hopefully lowering the number of teen pregnancies is to better educate our teenage population. All in all, I would like to see teens better educated on teen pregnancy. Also to let them know if that is the situation they find themselves in, that there are options out there for them to choose from. There is someone for them to talk to and confide in about what they are feeling and how they want to proceed. There have been numerous surveys of adolescent sexual behavior, but their results have often been inconsistent. There is, however, general agreement about one point: Young people are having sex at an earlier age than they did a century ago. Although this change is just one part of an overall trend toward more liberal sexual attitudes and behaviors, it poses some special problems. In the erotically charged atmosphere of today’s society, young people are often confused about how to deal with their own sexuality. They see the overwhelming importance given to sexual attractiveness in the media-one study estimated that the average teenager ahs witnessed nearly 14,000 sexual encounters on television- yet they also hear their parents and religious advisers telling them that sex is wrong. As a result, many young people begin having sex without really intending to and without taking precautions against pregnancy. In the last decade or so, however, the growing awareness of the dangers of AIDS does appear to have contributed to a decline in the rates of sexual intercourse among teens. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey found that between 1991 and 2005 the percentage of teenagers who are sexually active dropped from 57. 4 percent to 46. 3 percent among males and from 50. 8 percent to 44. 9 percent among females. The rates of pregnancy, abortion, and sexually transmitted disease among teens have actually dropped even faster than the rate of sexual activity. So it appears that, in addition to postponing sex, teens are also becoming more responsible in their sexual activities. For example, the Youth Risk Behavior Survey found that 87. percent of teens were either abstinent or used condoms. Of course, that means that 12. 5 percent of teens were still having unprotected sex, but that is a significant improvement over past decades. Similarly, although the rate of teen pregnancy has declined, more than 11 percent of the babies born in the United States are still born to teenage mothers. Of sexually active teens, 63 percent reported using a condom during their last intercourse, and 17 percent say they used oral contraceptives, but that still means that 20 percent of sexually active teens had no effective protection against pregnancy. Why don’t more sexually active teenagers use contraceptives? In some cases, they may actually want to have a child, but most teenage pregnancies are accidental. Many teenagers are simply ignorant about sexual matters and believe such myths as â€Å"You can’t get pregnant the first time† or â€Å"You won’t get pregnant if you only have sex once in a while. † Teenagers are also influenced by parents and religious leaders who tell them to abstain not only from having sex but also from using birth control. Although birth control requires planning and forethought, it is easy to be swept into an unplanned sexual encounter in the heat of passion. Moreover, some teenagers feel that planning a sexual encounter is immoral but that if they are caught up in the heat of the moment and unable to stop, they can’t be blamed for their actions. Finally, teenagers often do not know how to get birth control devices or are afraid that their parents will get angry if they do. Teen Pregnancy Subject:Argumentative Synthesis Research Paper Sheltering the youth from birth control does not decrease the percentage of teen pregnancy but it fact helps initiate unprotected sex. The increase in teen pregnancy is due to, inadequate sexual education available to adolescents, lack of knowledge and resources for birth control, and the environment the individual grew up around. Research Questions Does providing adolescents with birth control increase teen pregnancy 1 Is there enough information on the consequences of unprotected sex easily accessible to today’s youth 2 Is the environment a teen lives in a factor of getting pregnant at a young age 3 Are parents willing to inform their child(ren) about the consequences about unprotected sex 4 Are parents more excepting about their child having sex if they know they are using protection 5 How does having condoms at easy access for teens result in unprotected sex Sources ttp://www. solutionsforamerica. org/healthyfam/teenage-pregna ncy. html http://www. escrh. eu/about-esc/news/young-people-report-high-levels-unprotected-sex-and-barriers-affecting-their-right-ob http://healthpsych. psy. vanderbilt. edu/condomConumdrum. htm * Write a brief paragraph here Three Supports for Thesis Statement * Teenage pregnancy and birth rates both dropped in the 1990s among all racial and ethnic groups.Increased use of contraceptives and increased abstinence * Teenage pregnancy is linked to several risk factors including: being poor, living in a single-parent household, child abuse, and risky behaviors such as drug abuse and early or unprotected sex * On average, only half of young people surveyed across Europe (55%) receive sex education in school compared to three quarters across Latin America (78%), Asia Pacific (76%) and the USA (74%) Arguments and Rebuttals * With the easy access of condoms there is more risk for teen pregnancy * Some positive aspects of providing condoms included that providing ondoms could reduce incidenc e of unwanted, teenage pregnancy and the spread of STDs. Secondly, a comprehensive sex education program including condom provision accepts the inevitability of adolescent sex and encourages students to make wise, â€Å"safe† decisions if they do have sex. * There is enough sexual education available to the adolescents in our society * Comprehensive health education or sexuality education that includes information on contraception; this may delay sexual initiation and increase contraceptive use.Youth development programs that include sex education along with other activities such as, volunteering, mentoring, and job training are associated with delayed first sex and lower teenage pregnancy rates * The environment that an adolescent is exposed to has nothing to do with the outcome of teen pregnancy * It was found in a study by the American Medical Association that â€Å"Teens who live in neighborhoods that have high levels of poverty, low levels of education, and high residen tial turnover are at a higher risk for teen pregnancy†(AMA,7).A similar study found that family factors also contribute to the rising rate of teen pregnancy. These include the income level of the family, as well as the family structure. Teens that were born to teenage parents are also more likely to become teenage parents themselves Reference Page Reising, Michelle. â€Å"Condom Conundrum: Should Condoms be Available in Schools?. † Health Psychology Home Page. Ed. David Schlundt. Vanderbilt University, n. . Web. 15 Nov. 2011. . â€Å"Teenage Pregnancy Prevention. † Solutions For America. Healthy Families and Children, n. d. Web. 15 Nov. 2011. . â€Å"Young people report high levels of unprotected sex and barriers affecting their right to obtain trustworthy information about sex and Teen Pregnancy On average, 700 girls are impregnated each year in The Bahamas. Twenty percent of these teen mothers have another child while they are still in their teens according to the president of the PACE Foundation, Sonia Brown. We are urging citizens to take a stand and educate our children about contraceptives and the irresponsibility and lack of knowledge that leads to teenage pregnancy. Most teens that have children find it harder to become a part of the work force because their time is more focused on their child.They are less prepared to enter the working world because they are ill prepared due to being forced to be adults at a young age. Thus, not completing school in most instances. When they enter the Job market these teens need assistance with day care and other services that they are often unable to afford due to their minimum wage Jobs that they barely qualify for. Unplanned teenage pregnancies can lead to higher high school dropout rates, higher rates of single parenthood, and lo wering scores in math and reading.Stopping teenage pregnancy requires a hands-on connection between parents and hildren, a good educational foundation, and unbiased resources. The COB Gazette is campaigning for: *Teaching Sex Education to Stop Teenage Pregnancy Government officials claim that their efforts to fght teenage pregnancy is that they already have parenthood sessions in government schools but those are not effective enough because we still have a large number of teenage pregnancies in The Bahamas today. Sex education starts in the home as well.Parents should begin introducing the subject of puberty and sex with their children at around age 5. At irst these discussions are more based on the relationships between the sexes. Schools also teach teens about the chances and effects of teenage pregnancies, though the approach will depend on each school. Teens have hormones raging through their bodies and often misunderstand how these hormones affect their choices about safe sex. Implementing a parenting class to become a part of the curriculum in Bahamian schools will help teach girls about the dedication and time it takes to be a teenage mother.The class should also include lessons on different ypes of contraceptives and birth control methods. *Providing Resources to Prevent In addition to teaching teens about teenage pregnancy, parents and school systems should provide a list of resources for teens that are contemplating having sex. These resources often include phone numbers to local support groups and locations where teens can pick up free condoms. Some school systems can even choose to hand out condoms as part of their safe sex services. *Birth Control and Teen Pregnancies Teenage girls can be placed on birth control to stop teenage pregnancies.This does not mean sexual education is no longer needed. Birth control and condoms may prevent teenage pregnancies but they will not stop the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV, syphilis and gonorrhea. When choosing birth control, parents and teens have options. There are daily, monthly and tri-monthly birth control solutions. Daily birth control pills are the most common utilized by teen girls trying to prevent pregnancy. The pills need to be taken at the same time every day, however, which can be difficult for some teen girls to remember.Parents can discuss birth control options with the family physician or gynecologist. The solutions proposed should be greatly considered by the government and schools, as they would pose to be great options in helping our teenage girls. Although the pregnancy rate amongst teens has decreased by two percent over the last ten years, PACE still enrolls 100 to 150 pregnant teens a year. The age group mostly affected by this epidemic are girls ages 14 to 15. We should be making moves to encourage our young girls to make smarter choices.

Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh Essay

FIRST OF ALL I LIKE TO SHOW GREAT RESPECT TO OUR ALMIGHTY FOR GIVING ME AN ABILITY TO CARRY ON THIS TYPE OF ASSIGNMENT ON THE WAY TO COMPLETION AND FINALIZATION TO MY SUCCESS. THEN I WOULD LIKE TO THANK OUR HONORABLE TEACHER SHAMSHAD CHOWDHURY FOR GIVING ME THE ACTUAL IDEAS AND CLUES FOR THE ASSIGNMENT. ESPECIALLY THANKS TO THE AUTHORITY OF SHANTO-MARIAM UNIVERSITY OF CREATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR SELECTING THIS KIND OF SUBJECT THAT REALLY WOULD BE A PIONEER STEP ON OUR FUTURE AND TO MAKE A GREAT PLAN FOR THE FURTHER ACTIVITIES AND TO THE NEAR NEXT 1 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh. 1. Introduction : BANGLADESH IS QUITE RICH IN ETHNIC CULTURE. THERE ARE ABOUT THIRTY-FIVE ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY. THE MAJOR ETHNIC COMMUNITIES ARE CHAKMA, MURMA, GARO, SANTAL, HAJONG, TIPRA, KHASI, MURANG, SHENDHU, PANKO ETC. THEY STRUGGLE TO MAINTAIN THEIR LIFE STYLE, CULTURE AND PROTECT DISTINCT RELIGIOUS BELIEFS FROM THE INFLUENCE OF THE DOMINANT CULTURE AND RELIGIONS. IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH A NUMBER OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVE WHO STILL HAVE TO STRUGGLE HARD TO SUSTAIN THEIR ORIGINAL CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL HERITAGE. THE ADIVASIS IN THIS REGION COMPRISES OF SEVERAL GROUPS SANTAL, ORAON, MUNDA, MAHALI, MAHATO, MALPAHARA ETC. AMONG THE ETHNIC PEOPLE IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH SANTALS ARE LARGEST IN NUMBER. BUT THERE IS NO ACCURATE AND RELIABLE STATISTICS REGARDING THEIR ACTUAL POPULATION. THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL FIGURES AND ESTIMATES. ACCORDING TO THE GOVERNMENT CENSUS OF 1991, THE ADIVASI POPULATION WAS ESTIMATED 3,14,337 IN 16 ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICT OF THE RAJSHAHI DIVISION. BUT AS CLAIMED BY AN INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY LEADER, BADLA ORAON OF DINAJPUR ADIVASI ACADEMY, THE. NUMBER OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN RAJSHAI DIVISION WAS 3,222,000 WAY BACK IN 1984. A SURVEY REPORT REVEALS THAT THE TOTAL POPULATION OF SANTAL IS 143932 IN DINAJPUR, RAJSHAHI, BOGRA, PABNA AND SOME OTHER AREAS OF BANGLADESH. ACCORDING TO THE OTHER SOURCES, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SANTALS ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN ESTIMATED. MOST OF THE SCHOLARS ALSO QUESTIONED THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE NUMERICAL DATA. IN THEIR OPINION, THE CENSUS TAKES LANGUAGE AS THE BASIS FOR IDENTIFYING ANY PERSON AS BENGALI OR INDIGENOUS. THEY HAVE ALSO ALLEGED THAT THE EXISTING POLICY IS TO SHOW THE NUMBER LOWER THAN THE ACTUAL NUMBER. 2 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. Historical Background of the Santals SINCE HOW LONG THE SANTALS LANDED IN THE TERRITORY OF PRESENT BANGLADESH, IS NOT PRECISELY KNOWN. SOME BELIEVE THAT THE KHERWARS REACHED THE LAND OF BENGAL IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE FIRST CLASHES WITH THE INVADING ARYAN TRIBES (2500 B. C. ). WITH EVERY PROBABILITY THE SANTALS LANDED IN BANGLADESH WITH THEIR ACTUAL ETHNIC IDENTITY, NOT AFTER 1000 B. C. IT IS PROBABLE THAT THE SANTALS SCATTERED THROUGHOUT BENGAL AT THE TIME OF THE MUSLIM INVASION OF THIS REGION DURING THE LAST DECADES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY OR AT THE BEGINNING OF THIRTEENTH CENTURY. IN THE WORDS OF FR. LUIZI PUSSETTO: â€Å"THE SANTALS RETIRED PROGRESSIVELY TOWARD MORE CALM REGIONS OR WHERE IT WAS MORE EASY TO DEFEND [THEMSELVES] FROM THE INVADERS†¦ † IN LATER TIMES, WITH THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855 UNDER THE BRITISH COLONIAL RULE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, WHEN 30,000 THOUSAND SANTALS ARE BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN KILLED, IT IS BEYOND ANY DOUBT THAT MANY OF THE SANTALS WERE DISPERSED INTO DISTANT LANDS AND GEOGRAPHICALLY ISOLATED TERRITORIES. MANY OF THEM EVEN CROSSED THE RIVER GANGES AND END UP IN THE EAST, THE PART OF PRESENT BANGLADESH. MANY THINK THAT THE EARLY SANTALS CAME TO NORTH BENGAL IN SEARCH FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE RAILWAY TRACKS WERE UNDER CONSTRUCTION during the British rule in the second half of the 19th century. This may be one of THE REASONS THAT MOST SANTALS IN BANGLADESH ARE FOUND SETTLING ON BOTH SIDES OF THE RAILWAY LINES FROM NORTH TO SOUTH. 2. 1 THE NAME â€Å"SANTAL†: REGARDING THE NAME SANTAL, OPINIONS DIFFER AMONG THE SCHOLARS. FOR SKREFSRUD, THE NAME SANTAL IS A CORRUPTION OF SAONTAR, AND WAS ADOPTED BY THE TRIBE AFTER THEIR SOJOURN FOR SEVERAL GENERATIONS IN THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT IN MIDNAPUR. W. B. OLDHAM OPINED THAT SANTAL IS AN ABBREVIATION OF SAMANTAWALA, WHICH HAS ITS ETYMOLOGY FROM SANSKRIT SAMANTA, ANOTHER NAME GIVEN TO THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT. O’MALLEY IS OF THE OPINION THAT SANTAL IS AN ENGLISH FORM ADOPTED FROM HINDI WHICH CORRESPONDS WITH THE FORM SAOTAL USED BY THE BENGALI SPEAKING PEOPLE. MOST ANTHROPOLOGISTS AGREE THAT SANTAL IS A NAME GIVEN TO THIS TRIBE BY NON-SANTALS. HOWEVER, SANTALS PREFER TO CALL THEMSELVES HOR MEANING â€Å"HUMAN BEING OR PERSON. † FOR THE SANTALS THE CONCEPT HOR BEARS A RICH CONNOTATION TO MEAN A PERSON WITH QUALITIES OF INTELLECT, OF KNOWLEDGE, OF WISDOM; THEY REFER THEMSELVES AS A TRIBE WITH DIGNITY AND FULL HUMAN POTENTIALITY. THE SANTALS ARE PROUD OF THEIR IDENTITY THAT DEFINES THE TRAITS OF SOLIDARITY AND UNIQUENESS AS A GROUP. 3 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. 2 ORIGIN, RACE, AND LANGUAGE: AS TO THE â€Å"ORIGIN† OF THE SANTALS, VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN FOR CERTAIN. THE SANTALS HAVE NO RECORDED HISTORY. LIKE OTHER ANCIENT SOCIETIES, SANTALS HAVE TRIED TO EXPLORE THE MYSTERIES OF CREATION, HISTORY AND LIFE BY MEANS OF MYTHS AND LEGENDS. FOLLOWING THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA, SOME AUTHORS CLASSIFY SANTALS AS PRE-DRAVIDIAN AND OTHERS AS PROTO-AUSTROLOIDS; AND OTHERS AS ABORIGINALS OF THE NORTHWEST. THUS, THE OPINIONS IN THIS RESPECT ARE VERY DISCORDANT. THE SANTALS DO HAVE THEIR OWN MYTHOLOGY OF CREATION AND MANY BELIEVE THAT THEY ALL HAVE COME FROM PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI, WHICH IS LIKE ADAM AND EVE IN THE BIBLE. SANTALI IS THE MOTHER TONGUE SPOKEN BY THE SANTALS. IT IS A MUNDA LANGUAGE OF THE KHERWAR GROUP THAT BELONGS TO THE MUNDA-MON-KHMER OR ‘AUSTRO-ASIATIC’ SUB-FAMILY. BUT THERE ARE OTHER DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THIS TOO. ACCORDING TO N. PRASAD, â€Å"SANTALI IS THE RICHEST DIALECT AMONG ALL THE TRIBAL DIALECTS OF BIHAR. † 2. 3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: IN BANGLADESH, THE SANTALS ARE FOUND MOSTLY IN NORTH BENGAL (NORTHERN PART OF BANGLADESH) ESPECIALLY IN THE THEN GREATER DISTRICTS OF DINAJPUR, RANGPUR, BOGRA, AND RAJSHAHI. ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1881, THE SANTALS RESULTED PRESENT IN THE DISTRICT OF KHULNA, PABNA AND CHITTAGONG IN THE SOUTH. MANY SAY THAT THE SANTALS, WHO ARE IN SYLHET, ARE THE ONES WHO MIGRATED FROM THE DISTRICTS MENTIONED ABOVE AND CAME HERE MAINLY TO WORK IN THE TEA GARDENS AS LABORERS. IN SHORT, THE SANTALS OF BANGLADESH ARE ALMOST ALL DERIVED FROM THOSE EMIGRATED FROM THE SANTAL PARGANA IN INDIA AND NOTHING DISTINGUISHES THEM FROM THOSE WHO ARE STILL LIVING THERE, WITH THE EXCEPTION, PERHAPS OF THE USE OF BANGLA WORDS THAT ARE SANTALIZED. IN RECENT TIMES SOME OF THE BANGLADESHI SANTALS ALSO STARTED GOING ABROAD TAKING EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES. 4 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 3. THE WORLDVIEW THE SANTALS ARE SIMPLE AND UNSOPHISTICATED PEOPLE. LIKE ANY OTHER PEOPLE, THE SANTALS HAVE DEVELOPED THEIR OWN WORLDVIEW, A SYSTEM SUITED TO DEAL WITH THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND ITS MEANING. THEY HAVE PERCEIVED THE ENIGMA AND THE BASIC DICHOTOMY OF HUMAN EXISTENCE—LIFE AND DEATH, GOOD AND EVIL FROM THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVE. FOR THE SANTALS, LIFE, HEALTH, WEALTH, PROSPERITY, HAPPINESS, TRIBAL SOLIDARITY, RELIGIOUS BELIEF, MORES, ETC., ARE â€Å"GOOD†; AND DEATH, ILLNESS, POVERTY, MISFORTUNE, INJURY ETC. ARE â€Å"EVIL†. THEIR RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IS MEDIATED THROUGH THEIR CULTURE AND ARE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF SYMBOLS, METAPHORS, MYTH, LEGENDS, FOLKLORE, SONGS, CULT, RITUALS AND SO ON. THE Santals consider Th kur Jiu ? (Life Giver) or Cando Baba (Sun Father) or Marang BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) AS THE SOURCE OF ALL â€Å"GOOD†; WHILE IT IS THE â€Å"EVIL EYE†, THE â€Å"evil mouth† and the b ric’ bonga ? or malevolent spirits who cause harms in human LIFE. THEREFORE, WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE SUPREME BEING, THEY ALSO PROPITIATE THE. BONGA IN AN ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF SUFFERING, SICKNESS, AND OTHER CRISIS. ALL THESE QUITE OFTEN LEAD THEM TO SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS AND GIVE RISE TO PROMINENCE OF THE FEAR OF THE BONGA. FOR THE SANTALS EVERY NEWBORN CHILD COMING FROM THE INVISIBLE AND SHADOWY WORLD NEEDS TO BE PURIFIED, IDENTIFIED AND INTRODUCED TO THE SANTAL SOCIETY. MUCH OF SUCH REALITIES ARE EXPRESSED THROUGH THE RITUAL CEREMONIES PERFORMED AFTER A CHILD IS born. The ritual of the janam ch ti r? ? (birth purification and name-giving ritual) is ONE EXAMPLE WHERE THESE ASPECTS ARE ENACTED THROUGH BATHING, SHAVING THE HEAD OF. THE BABY, DIVINING OF ARWA RICE (UNBOILED RICE) GRAINS AND WELCOMING OF THE BABY BY THE COMMUNITY. THE DEATH PURIFICATION CEREMONIES LIKE FUNERAL RITES OF BHANDAN, OR MORA KARAM (AFTER-DEATH CELEBRATION) PROVIDE FURTHER DETAILS OF THE SANTAL-BELIEF SYSTEM THAT THE DEAD PERSON GOES BACK TO THE SAME SPIRIT-WORLD OF LIFE FROM WHERE HE/SHE HAD COME AS A BABY AND REMAINS DEFILED AND DEFILING, FOR WHICH REASON NOT ONLY THE FAMILY THAT NEEDS PURIFICATION, BUT THE VERY RETURN OF THE DECEASED. PERSON TO ITS ORIGINAL STATE OR SHADOWY-WORLD IS ALREADY DEFILING BECAUSE IT IS A TRIBELESS-STATE, CONDEMNED AND SINFUL STATE AND BECAUSE IT HAS BEEN CREATED FOR THE PUNISHMENT OF THE SINS OF GREED AND PRIDE. HENCE, THE DECEASED PERSON NEEDS TO BE BROUGHT BACK 5 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SPIRITUALLY TO HIS/HER OWN FAMILY AND IS INSTALLED AS AN INVISIBLE MEMBER AS HAPRAM (ANCESTOR). THE DECEASED, ALTHOUGH INVISIBLE, REMAIN A PERMANENT MEMBER OF THE FAMILY AND ARE REMEMBERED AND RESPECTED DURING ALL THEIR FAMILY OCCASIONS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT â€Å"WHEN [A] HUMAN BEING BECOMES PERFECTLY FREE FROM ALL GREED AND PRIDE THIS STATE WILL BE REMOVED AND THAT WILL BE THE NEW CREATION, WHICH IN CHRISTIANITY MAY BE COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF SALVATION. FOR THE SANTALS, THERE IS NO CLEAR DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE SACRED AND THE PROFANE, RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS, SPIRITUAL AND THE MATERIAL AREAS OF LIFE. ANIMALS AND THE MATERIAL WORLD ARE AT THE DISPOSAL OF HUMAN BEINGS FOR THEIR SELF-PRESERVATION AND WELL-BEING. MOREOVER, SANTAL-LIFE IS CLOSELY RELATED TO NATURE AND TO THE WHOLE OF CREATION. LAND AND FOREST REMAIN UNITED WITH SANTAL-IDENTITY AND ARE VERY MUCH REFLECTED IN THEIR LIVES, LOVE, POETRY, SONGS, DANCE AND MUSIC. THE SANTALS, FOR EXAMPLE, ADDRESS TO THE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† AS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER) AND THE STARS. TOO HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES. ACCORDING TO ARCHER, â€Å"ALTHOUGH FIELDS, HOUSES, MEN AND WOMEN SEEM TO CONSTITUTE A SANTAL VILLAGE, SANTALS REGARD THEM AS AT MOST A PORTION OF THEIR TOTAL WORLD. † 6 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 4. THE SANTALS IN THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITIES 4. 1 THE SANTAL-VILLAGE: THE SANTAL VILLAGE IS A PATTERN OF SANTAL LIVING AND IT IS THE MOST TRADITIONAL AND ANCIENT INSTITUTION, WHICH CRYSTALLIZES THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RITUAL STRUCTURES. IT COMES INTO EXISTENCE THROUGH THE SPECIAL DISPENSATION OF THE BONGA AND IS SANCTIFIED BY THEIR BLESSINGS. THE PRESENCE OF. DIFFERENT CLANS IN A VILLAGE DEMONSTRATES THE BEAUTY OF A COMMUNITY LIVING AND OBVIOUSLY THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION ITSELF IS A SIGN OF INCREDIBLE RICHNESS OF THE SANTAL SOCIETAL DEALING AND LIVING. A SANTAL VILLAGE IS DEMARCATED WITH AN IMPLICIT BOUNDARY SO THAT IT MAY REMAIN FREE FROM OUTSIDE INTERFERENCE OF EVIL SPIRITS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT QUARRELS AMONG FAMILIES AND GROUPS IN THE VILLAGE, NATURAL CALAMITIES, SICKNESS, EPIDEMICS, ETC. , ARE CAUSED BY LACK OF BALANCE BETWEEN THE FORCES OF GOOD AND EVIL. 4. 2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SANTAL VILLAGE: THE PRIMARY FEATURE OF EVERY SANTAL. VILLAGE IS THE â€Å"MANJHI COUNCIL† OR THE VILLAGE COUNCIL HEADED BY A MANJHI (HEADMAN). THE VILLAGE COUNCIL IS THE REPRESENTATIVE BODY OF THE COMMUNITY CONSISTING OF SEVEN OFFICIALS, NAMELY: MANJHI, PARANIK (A DEPUTY HEADMAN), JOG MANJHI (AN OVERSEER OF THE VILLAGE ON MORAL ISSUES), JOG PARANIK (ASSISTANT TO JOG MANJHI), GODET’ (A MESSENGER), NAEKE (A village priest), and his assistant is Kud m Naeke?. These OFFICIALS IN FACT ARE THE SERVANTS, NOT THE MASTERS OF THE village and their role is purely functional. The M njhi? remains as the overall LEADER OF THE VILLAGE COUNCIL AND PRESIDES OVER THE VILLAGE MEETING BUT WITH THE. ACCEPTED PRINCIPLE THAT NO ONE OVERRULES ANY ONE ELSE. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE CATEGORICALLY DIVIDED AMONG THE MEMBERS IN ORDER TO AVOID ANY OVERLAPPING. THE COUNCIL MEMBERS PERFORM THEIR FUNCTIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR TRIBAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. THE PATTERN OF THE VILLAGE GOVERNANCE OF THE SANTALS IS MOSTLY DEMOCRATIC IN CHARACTER LIKE ANY OTHER DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTION. HOWEVER IN PRESENT TIME, WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE GOVERNMENT-SPONSORED UNION PARISAD (LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL) THE SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE TRADITIONAL m njhi ? council of the Santals is mostly undermined. 7 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh FOLLOWING THE PATRIARCHAL PATTERN, THE MANJHI (LEADER) OF THE VILLAGE FOR THE SANTALS, IS ALWAYS A MALE. THE TITLE OF THE MANJHI IS GENERALLY HEREDITARY AND IT IS PASSED ON PATRILINEALLY. NOW-A-DAYS, THE MALE MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE MAY ELECT OR EVEN SELECT THEIR OWN HEADMAN UPON COMMON CONSENSUS. THE TERM OF OFFICE IS INDEFINITE BUT CAN BE ALTERED BY GENERAL AGREEMENT ACCORDING TO THE NEED. ALTHOUGH THE OFFICE OF THE HEADMAN IS VOLUNTARY AND HONORARY IN NATURE, THE MEMBERS OF THE MANJHI COUNCIL ARE RESPONSIBLE TO THE COMMUNITY FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR SOCIAL MATTERS. 4. 3 THE CLANS: SANTALS ARE ENDOGAMIC AS A PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY CANNOT GET MARRIED OUTSIDE THEIR TRIBE, BUT THEY ARE EXOGAMIC AS CLAN BECAUSE THEY CANNOT BE married between the same clan (p ris? ). Traditionally the Santals used to have FOSTERED A TOTAL OF TWELVE CLANS BUT UNFORTUNATELY IN THE COURSE OF HISTORY ONE HAS BEEN MISSING. THE CLANS ARE: 1) BASKEY, 2) BESRA, 3) CORE, 4) HASDAK’, 5) Hembrom, 6) Kisku, 7) Marandi, 8) Murmu, 9) P uria, 10) Soren, 11) Tudu, and ? 12) BEDEA (THE LOST ONE). MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLANS ARE TO REGULATE MARRIAGE, INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION AND AFFILIATION (ALI 1988; ALSO HOSSAIN 2000). ONE BECOMES A CLAN MEMBER BY BIRTH. IT IS SAID THAT THESE CLANS ARE HIERARCHICALLY ORDERED ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION, LIKE: Kisku raja (king), Marandi Kipis r ? (wealthy or richer), Murmu Th kur ? (priest), Soren Sip hi ? (warrior), Tudu M nd ri ? ? ? (musician), and so on and so forth. HOWEVER, ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCHER, THESE OCCUPATIONAL HIERARCHIES OF STATUS DO NOT HAVE ANY IMPACT ON THE SANTALS IN DAILY LIVES. 4. 4 FAMILY AND MARRIAGE: FAMILY IS THE PRIMARY UNIT OF HUMAN SOCIETY. THE FAMILY AMONG THE SANTALS CAN BE TERMED AS OF BIOLOGICAL, JOINT, AND EXTENDED. A. HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND THEIR UNMARRIED CHILDREN FORM PART OF THE BIOLOGICAL OR NUCLEAR FAMILY. A HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND HIS MARRIED AND UNMARRIED SONS AND DAUGHTERS AND SOMETIMES HIS OLD PARENTS, BROTHER AND HIS FAMILY FORM PART OF THE JOINT FAMILY OR EXTENDED FAMILY TYPE. ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, MARRIAGE IS AN UNION BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN, WHICH IS SOCIALLY RECOGNIZED; CULTURALLY AND RELIGIOUSLY IT ALLOWS THE COUPLE TO LIVE IN A FAMILY. A SANTAL MARRIAGE CAN BE DESCRIBED ALSO AS A LEGAL TRANSFER OF DEPENDENCY OF THE 8 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh BRIDE, FROM HER FATHER’S FAMILY TO THE GROOM’S FAMILY. BY THIS TRANSFER, THE GROOM’S FAMILY DOES NOT ONLY ASSUME GUARDIANSHIP BUT ALSO ASSUMES CONTROL OVER ALL HER AFFAIRS. THROUGH MARRIAGE THE BRIDE LOOSES HER PATERNAL LEGAL IDENTITY AND ACQUIRES THE IDENTITY OF THE GROOM’S FAMILY. IN THE INSTITUTIONAL SENSE, MARRIAGE IS THE PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN REGULATED BY CUSTOMARY LAWS THAT ENHANCE LEGAL UNION BETWEEN THE SEXES AND DEFINE THE PROCEDURES FOR ESTABLISHING THE HUSBAND-WIFE RELATION, THE RECIPROCAL OBLIGATIONS AND THE ACCEPTED RESTRICTIONS UPON ITS PERSONNEL. AS TO THE ORIGIN AND INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE CREATOR. HIMSELF HAS ESTABLISHED MARRIAGE. THAT IS, THE THAKUR JIU WHO CREATED THE FIRST HUMAN PAIR (PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI) HAS ALSO INSTITUTED MARRIAGE. ALTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME INSTANCES OF POLYGAMY, MONOGAMY IS THE NATURE OF MOST SANTAL MARRIAGES. BESIDES SERVING SEXUAL NEEDS AND PROCREATION OF HEIRS, A SANTAL MARRIAGE HAS ALSO OTHER PURPOSES, SUCH AS COMPANIONSHIP, FORMATION OF FAMILY, ECONOMIC SECURITY, COOPERATION IN THE FAMILY ENTERPRISE, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SECURITY, ETC. THUS, SANTAL MARRIAGE IS NOT ONLY BETWEEN TWO PERSONS OF OPPOSITE SEX BUT IT ALSO BECOMES A BOND OF UNION BETWEEN TWO FAMILIES, TWO VILLAGES, AND. ALSO INFLUENCES THE CIRCLE OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE RELATIVES. M. A. JALIL MENTIONS FOUR TYPES OF MARRIAGE AMONG THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH. THESE ARE: 1) DANGWA BAPLA (CONTACT MARRIAGE), 2) ANGIR BAPLA (LOVE MARRIAGE), 3) OR BAPLA (FORCE MARRIAGE), AND 4) ITUT’ BAPLA (TACTICAL MARRIAGE). MOREOVER, SANTALS DO HAVE EXCEPTIONS ESPECIALLY IN THE CASE OF MARRIAGE BETWEEN CANDIDATES OF THE SAME CLAN. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN THE MARRIAGE OF A YOUNG COUPLE OF THE SAME CLAN FOR A VALID REASON BECOMES NECESSARY, AND CONSANGUINITY OR AFFINITY DOES NOT PREVENT IT, THEY APPLY A JURIDICAL PRETENSE. IN SUCH CASE, AN ELDERLY COUPLE OF A DIFFERENT CLAN, ADOPTS THE BRIDE AS THEIR DAUGHTER THROUGH A SIMPLE RITUAL CEREMONY AND GIVES THE PROPER NAME TO HER. 4. 5 ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES: THE SANTAL SOCIETY IS MARKED WITH FEASTS, FESTIVALS AND RITUAL CELEBRATIONS. ONE OF THE TERMS OFTEN used by the Santals is r sk? ? meaning happiness, or joy, WHICH IS NOT ONLY DEAR TO THEIR HEARTS BUT IS PART AND PARCEL OF THEIR LIFE. THUS, WE FIND DANCING AND SINGING HAVE A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE AT EVERY FESTIVAL OCCASION. IT BRINGS A SANTAL TO FORGET WORRIES AND STRESSES OF HIS OR HER 9 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh DAY-TO-DAY LIFE. IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SANTALS, FEASTS AND FESTIVALS HAVE GREAT SIGNIFICANCE FOR THESE ARE THE LIVING EXPRESSION OF THE DEEP ASPIRATION OF JOY AND HAPPINESS, AND ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE FEELING OF COMMUNITY AND SOLIDARITY INTEGRATED AS PART OF THE NATURE OF THE SANTALS. MANY OF SUCH CHARACTERISTICS ARE EXPRESSED IN SONGS, MUSIC AND IN DANCE. IN FACT, THE SANTALS DON’T GIVE ANY SPACE TO INDIVIDUALISM AND IT IS REALLY DURING THE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL REALIZES HIMSELF OR HERSELF IN THE COMMUNITY AND HIS OR HER FUTURE ROLE IN THE LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY. ALTHOUGH, MOST OF THESE FESTIVALS SEEMINGLY APPEAR AS MERE GATHERING OF CLOSE FRIENDS AND RELATIVES, INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SUB-CLAN OR THAT CONCERN ONLY THE INHABITANTS OF A VILLAGE; YET, THERE ARE ALSO OCCASIONS THAT INVOLVE MORE VILLAGES, AS IT USUALLY HAPPENS ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGE WHEN PARTICIPATION IS MOSTLY UNANIMOUS. IN ANY OF THESE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, THERE ARE CERTAIN RITES AND RITUALS BEING FOLLOWED OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY SIMPLE OFFERING AT THE CENTER. ABLUTIONS AND UNCTION OF OIL, THE USE OF VERMILION TO MARK THE SACRIFICIAL VICTIM AND EVEN BEING USED BY THE PARTICIPANTS, BEARS A GREATER SIGNIFICANCE. IN FACT, SOME OF THESE FESTIVAL PERFORMANCES CONSIST OF SOME SORT OF WORSHIP OR FOLK CULTS. FROM THE RITES AND FESTIVALS OF THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE CLEAR THAT THEIR ECONOMIC LIFE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND RITUAL PERFORMANCES ARE INTERWOVEN MAINLY AROUND AGRICULTURE. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE ASPECTS OF MATERIAL LIFE MUST BE PROTECTED AND GUARDED BY APPROPRIATE RITES AND FESTIVALS; AND BONGA (SPIRITS) MUST BE SATISFIED BY GIVING THEIR DUE SHARES. MANY OF THE SOCIO-CULTURAL FESTIVALS AND RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS INDICATE THAT SANTALS. HAVE DEEPER INSIGHTS THAT GO BEYOND MERE EXTERNAL CELEBRATIONS. HOWEVER, DUE TO THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THIS STUDY, WE ONLY MENTION SOME MAIN ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES COMMONLY OBSERVED LIKE: SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA (FLOWER festival), Erok’ (sowing of rice seeds in the field), Iri-Gundli N wai? (offering of THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE MILLET IRI), JANTHAR (OFFERING OF THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE WINTER RICE CROP). SANTALS ALSO HAVE OCCASIONAL RITES AND FESTIVALS, WHICH ARE NEITHER ASSOCIATED WITH AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS NOR PERFORMED ANNUALLY. SOME OF THESE ARE: JOM SIM, MAK’ MORE AND KARAM. 10 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REALITIES 5. 1 OCCUPATIONS AND LIVING: TRADITIONALLY SANTALS ARE MAINLY AGRICULTURISTS. THEY CLING TO THEIR LAND AS THEIR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION AND MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. ABOUT 95% OF THE SANTALS ARE INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. INDUSTRIOUS AND HARDWORKING AS THEY ARE, UNFORTUNATELY THE SCIENTIFIC SIDE OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CULTIVATION AND MANAGING THEIR LAND HAS NOT BEEN DEVELOPED. IN THE PAST THE MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS WERE LANDOWNERS, BUT DUE TO THE INCREASE IN POPULATION, EXPLOITATION BY MONEYLENDERS AND LANDLORDS, ILLEGAL. OCCUPATION OF THEIR LAND, POVERTY AND ILLITERACY, NATURAL CALAMITIES ETC. THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH HAVE LOST THEIR LAND PROPERTIES. AT PRESENT, NEARLY 80% OF THE SANTALS ARE LAND-LESS, FORCING THEM TO EARN THEIR LIVELIHOOD DEPENDING ON THE MERCY AND AVAILABILITY OF WORK IN THE FIELDS OF THEIR MUSLIM OR HINDU NEIGHBORS FOR THEIR MERE SUBSISTENCE. YET, IT IS SIGNIFICANT TO NOTE THAT TRADITIONALLY THERE ARE NO BEGGARS AMONG THE SANTALS. RATHER, THE SANTALS IN THE TIME OF DIRE POVERTY GO TO THE JUNGLE TO COLLECT WILD PLANTS, FRUITS, WILD POTATOES AND ROOTS OF YOUNG SHOOTS, FLOWERS, MUSHROOMS, ETC. HUNTING AND FISHING THAT USED TO BE PART OF SANTAL-LIVING, HAVE NOW BECOME SECONDARY IMPORTANCE DUE TO THE CHANGE OF SITUATION. LACK OF EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE VILLAGE AREAS, ALSO FORCED MANY SANTALS TO FLOCK TO THE NEARBY TOWNS AND CITIES IN SEARCH OF DAILY WAGES AND JOBS. THE WOMEN IN SANTAL SOCIETY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILIES BUT IN REALITY THEY REMAIN DEPRIVED OF THEIR EQUAL RIGHT, WHICH IS REFLECTED BY THE FACT THAT WOMEN ARE NOT ELIGIBLE FOR THE INHERITANCE OF PROPERTIES. SANTALS HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND TO BE INTERESTED IN COMMERCE OR ANY SUCH PROFESSION TO AVAIL OF ECONOMIC SELF-RELIANCE. THIS IS ONE OF THE REASONS WHY. THEY REMAIN RATHER MARGINALIZED INVITING POVERTY IN THEIR LIVES. MOREOVER, MOST SANTALS DO NOT THINK ABOUT FUTURE, RATHER THEY ARE MORE CONCERNED FOR THE DAY; IT’S A DAY-TO-DAY LIVING AND THEY REMAIN SATISFIED AND HAPPY WITH THE LITTLE THEY CAN HAVE FOR MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILY. HOWEVER, DUE TO SOME PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, A SMALL NUMBER OF SANTALS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO MAKE LITTLE CHANGES IN THEIR WAY OF LIVING. 11 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SOME HAVE TAKEN UP MODERN PROFESSIONS LIKE TEACHINGS, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, JUDICIAL ADVOCACY, NURSING ETC. 5. 2 POLITICAL REALITY: SANTALS, A PEACE LOVING PEOPLE HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND INTERESTED IN POLITICS. YET, THEY HAVE ALWAYS REACTED WHEN THINGS WENT SEVERELY PAINFUL AND THEY WERE PUSHED AGAINST THE WALL WHEN THEY COULD NOT BEAR ANYMORE. THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855-56, THE TEBHAGA ANDOLON (SHARE CROPPERS’ MOVEMENT) IN 1945, AND THE NACHOL BIDROHO (FARMERS’ REVOLUTION) IN THE YEAR 1950, ARE THE CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF THE PAST. IN FACT, SANTALS HAVE ALWAYS BEEN USED BY OTHERS IN THE FOREFRONT BATTLE. ILLITERACY, ABSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL SET UP AND LACK OF GENUINE. LEADERSHIP HAVE KEPT THE SANTALS FAR FROM ACHIEVING ANY END RESULT. IN RECENT YEARS, SOME OF THE SANTALS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO TAKE ACTIVE ROLE IN THE LOCAL POLITICS BY THEIR PARTICIPATION IN THE LOCAL ELECTION. 12 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. BELIEFS AND RITUAL PRACTICES 6. 1 THE BELIEF IN ONE SUPREME BEING: AS IT HAS ALREADY BEEN MENTIONED EARLIER, SANTALS DO BELIEVE IN ONE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† WHOM THEY CALL THAKUR JIU (LIFE GIVER) OR MARANG BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE â€Å"SUPREME† AMONG ALL THE â€Å"RELIGIOUS BEINGS†. THE MOST COMMON SANTAL-TERM USED FOR THE SUPREME BEING. THESE DAYS IS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER). ACCORDING TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE RESEARCHER THE SANTALS HERE DO NOT REFER LITERALLY TO THE SUN ITSELF RATHER, IT IS AN EXPRESSION OF A DIVINE ACTIVITY: EXPRESSION OF DIVINE LOVE IN RELATION TO HUMAN BEINGS. FOR THE SANTALS, CANDO BABA IS A BENEVOLENT DEITY WHO ORGANIZES THE DAYS AND NIGHTS AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR HEAT AND COLD, RAIN AND SUNSHINE; AND FROM A DWELLING ‘SOMEWHERE IN THE SKY’, ALLOTS EACH SANTAL A TERM OF LIFE HERE ON EARTH. BUT, HE STAYS FAR AWAY, FAR ABOVE THE SKY AND CANNOT BE REACHED. IT IS UNDERNEATH. THE SUN, BENEATH THE CLOUDS, THAT SANTAL LIFE IS CHALLENGED. HERE THE BONGA ROAM AROUND AND ONLY BY COMING TO TERMS WITH THEM CAN SANTALS BE HAPPY. 6. 2 THE BELIEF IN BONGA (SPIRITS): THE SANTALS BELIEVE IN THE EXISTENCE OF THE SPIRITS WHO ARE CALLED BONGA. THE BONGA HAVE MUCH REPERCUSSION ON DAILY LIVING OF THE SANTALS. TO ENSURE THEIR CONTINUING CARE, BESIDE ANNUAL SACRIFICES, THE BONGA ARE REMEMBERED IN A DAILY BASIS. WHENEVER A MEAL IS TAKEN, A SMALL PORTION OF THE FOOD IS DROPPED ON THE FLOOR FOR THE BONGA, OR AT THE TIME WHENEVER RICE-BEER IS DRUNK, A LITTLE IS SPILT ON THE GROUND FOR MARANG BURU. THUS, THE SANTALS LIVE NOT ONLY IN THEIR TRIBAL SOCIETY BUT IN A GREATER SOCIETY CONSISTING OF SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AS WELL. IN PRACTICE, THE SANTALS OFTEN USE THE TERM BONGA MEANING â€Å"TO INCORPORATE† SOMEONE INTO THE SOCIETY BY DOING CERTAIN RITUAL. THE PHRASE USED IN THIS CASE IS: BONGA TALA KEDEAKO MEANING, HE/SHE HAS BEEN ADMITTED INTO SANTAL SOCIETY. ACCORDING TO THE SANTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEF THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONGA—THE MALEVOLENT AND THE BENEVOLENT ONES. THE BONGA-WORSHIP IS PRIMARILY TO PLEASE AND TO INVOKE THE POWERS OF THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND TO AVERT THE ILL WILL OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA. IN THE WORSHIP OF BONGA WE CAN DISTINGUISH ANALYTICALLY TWO INTERRELATED ASPECTS: 13 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh A) THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT OF THE RELIGIOUS RITES IS TO HAVE AN ALLIANCE WITH THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND THEREBY CONTROLLING OR EVEN DEFEATING THE POWERS OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA; AND B) THE EXPRESSIVE ASPECT OF THE WORSHIP IS MANIFESTED THROUGH VARIOUS SEASONAL AND RELIGIOUS RITES, FESTIVALS AND RITES ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS SOCIAL RITUALS. SANTALS HAVE AN INNATE RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR BONGA AND CONSIDER THEMSELVES LIVING WITH THEM. THIS RELATIONSHIP IS MOSTLY OF DEPENDENCE, SUBMISSION, PROPITIATION AND REVERENTIAL FEAR. THE SANTALS DO SUPPLICATIONS; OFFER RICE-BEER; AND ANIMAL SACRIFICES IN THE NAME OF THE BONGA. IT IS WORTH MENTIONING THAT THERE ARE INSTANCES AMONG THE SANTALS IN THE RURAL VILLAGES WHERE PERSONS EVEN IN TIME OF SERIOUS SICKNESS WOULD NOT LOOK FOR MEDICAL HELP INSTEAD LEAVE IT TO THE BONGA TO BE CURED. 6. 3 BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT: RELATED TO SANTAL BELIEF-SYSTEM, IS ALSO THE EXISTENCE OF WITCHES. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES TO HARM PEOPLE, CATTLE, AND CROPS. THESE SO-CALLED WITCHES ARE INVOLVED IN DOING HARMFUL ACTIVITIES LIKE GIVING POISONS, TAKING OUT HUMAN LIVERS, SENDING TROUBLESOME SPIRITS TO CERTAIN FAMILIES AND CHANGING THEMSELVES INTO BLACK CATS. BECAUSE OF SUCH BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT PRACTICES, THE SANTALS EASILY SUSPECT ONE ANOTHER, AND ARE OFTEN LED TO FIGHT. IT IS PRESUMED THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO HAVE SUCH A BELIEF ESPECIALLY IN THE PAGAN WORLD. HOWEVER, THERE IS ALSO A COUNTER-BELIEF AMONG THE SANTALS THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE OJHA-JANGURU (SPECIALISTS), MAINLY MEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND. TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING WITCHES AND NULLIFYING THEIR SPELLS. THUS, WHENEVER SANTALS GET INTO TROUBLE, THEY SEEK THE HELP OF THESE PEOPLE WHO, MORE OFTEN EXPLOIT THE SOCIETY. REFERRING TO THE SICKNESS AND OTHER PROBLEMS, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE CAUSED BY THE EVIL SPIRITS WHEN THEY BECOME DISSATISFIED WITH THE SACRIFICES OF THE PEOPLE OR WHEN THEY THINK THAT THEY ARE BEING MANIPULATED BY SOME EVIL-MINDED PEOPLE (WITCHES). THEREFORE, THE SANTALS TRY TO IDENTIFY THE AGENTS OF THE TROUBLE THROUGH THE HELP OF OJHA–JANGURU AND TRY TO PACIFY EACH AGENT THROUGH VARIOUS SACRIFICES. 14 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. 4 THE ANCESTORS: FROM THE RITES AND RITUALS AS PRACTICED BY THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE EVIDENT THAT ANCESTOR-WORSHIP IS A COMMON FEATURE AMONG THEM. THE DEAD ANCESTORS ARE THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE FAMILIES OR GROUPS TO WHICH THEY BELONGED AND THAT THEY ARE EASILY APPROACHABLE BY THEIR LIVING KINSMEN. HENCE, AT ALL IMPORTANT OCCASIONS OF BIRTH, OF MARRIAGE OR OF DEATH THE DECEASED ANCESTORS ARE REMEMBERED AND OFFERED SACRIFICES. 6. 5 THE JAHERTHAN OR THE SACRED GROVE IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A SANTAL VILLAGE. IT IS A SACRED PLACE OF SPECIAL WORSHIP FOR THE SANTALS. AFTER A VILLAGE HAS BEEN SET UP, A JAHERTHAN IS INSTALLED THROUGH RITUAL CEREMONY AT THE OUTSKIRT OF THE VILLAGE. THE MAIN DEITY OF THE JAHERTHAN, IS KNOWN AS JAHER ERA (THE LADY OF THE GROVE). ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, SHE RESIDES THERE BESIDES OTHER IMPORTANT DEITIES SUCH AS THE MOREKO-TURUIKO (LITERALLY MEANS †FIVE-SIX†). THE JAHER ERA PRESIDES OVER THE SACRED GROVE, TENDS OVER OTHER BONGA IN THE JAHERTHAN AND LOOKS AFTER THE INTERESTS OF THE VILLAGERS ESPECIALLY FOR THEIR PHYSICAL NEEDS. THE SPIRITS OF THE JAHERTHAN ARE WORSHIPPED DURING THE PRINCIPAL FESTIVALS, LIKE SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA. (FLOWER FESTIVAL), EROK’ (SOWING FESTIVAL), AND SO ON FOR THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR OBTAINING GOOD CROPS AND FOR THE HEALTH OF THE VILLAGERS AND THEIR LIVESTOCK. 6. 6 The M njhithan? or the altar of the headman is placed along side the kulhi (VILLAGE ROAD) OR OFTEN AT THE CENTRAL PLACE OF THE VILLAGE OR IN FRONT THE HOUSE OF THE M njhi? (the headman). It is believed that the Manjhi bonga (spirit of the headman) RESIDES IN THIS ALTAR AND ACTS AS THE SPIRITUAL ADVISER OF THE HEADMAN. HERE THE M njhi? offers sacrifice for the benefit of himself, his family and for the whole. VILLAGE. 6. 7 THE â€Å"HOUSE-ALTAR†: IN THE INNER SIDE OF A SANTAL HOUSE, THERE REMAINS THE bhit r, ? a tiny compartment, which is the darkest space of the house. It is the abode OF THE ORAK BONGA (HOUSE SPIRITS) OR OFTEN KNOWN AS ABGE BONGA—THE BONGA OF THE SUB-CLAN. THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY DOES THE WORSHIP. IN ANY OCCASION OF THE FAMILY AND SOCIAL FESTIVALS, FOOD OFFERING IS MADE ON THIS ALTAR. THE NAMES OF THE ORAK BONGA ARE NOT REVEALED TO OUTSIDERS AND EVEN TO THE FEMALE MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE RATHER, HANDED DOWN FROM FATHER TO SON. USUALLY THE ELDEST SON RECEIVES THE NAME FROM HIS FATHER. 15 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh The bhit r? is also used as a secret place to germinate and to store h ndi ? (rice beer), WHICH IS NOT ONLY USED AS NORMAL DRINK BUT ITS USE IS SIGNIFICANT AND EXTENDED TO SOCIO-CULTURAL RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS, AND EVEN THAT TO BE OFFERED TO SATISFY THE BONGA. 6. 8 THE â€Å"AFTER-LIFE† IS THE CONTINUATION OF LIFE THAT IS LIVED IN THIS WORLD. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE SPIRIT OF THE DECEASED GOES TO A SHADOWY WORLD WHERE THE PERSON REQUIRES THE MATERIALS OF THIS WORLD. THIS IS WELL EXPRESSED WITH THE RITUAL PRACTICES DONE AT THE TIME OF BURIAL AND DURING THE BHANDAN, THE LAST CEREMONY DONE. IN HONOR OF THE DEAD. IN THE PAST, IT WAS PERFORMED IMMEDIATELY AFTER ALL THE REQUIREMENTS HAD BEEN FULFILLED FOR THE DECEASED PERSON, BUT IN PRESENT DAYS SUCH CEREMONY, IN A RICH FAMILY, IS DONE WITHIN TWO OR THREE MONTHS FROM THE DEATH AND IN A POOR FAMILY, IT IS ONE YEAR OR TWO. FOR THE SANTALS, THE MORE NUMEROUS ARE THE ANIMAL-VICTIMS OFFERED IN HONOR OF THE DEAD DURING THE BHANDAN, THE MORE WOULD BE THE ANIMALS THAT THE ANCESTOR WILL HAVE IN THE OTHER WORLD. MOST ANIMAL-VICTIMS ARE DONATED BY THE RELATIVES AND NONE OF THEM ARE TO BE SPARED FOR FUTURE USE BY THE FAMILY CONCERNED. TRADITIONALLY EVERY SANTAL, MALE AND FEMALE, IS SUPPOSED TO BEAR UNDELETABLE SCARS on the body. For the male, it is the sik? that must be at least three scars REPRESENTING JION (LIFE), MORON (DEATH), AND JION (LIFE). THE SANTAL WOMEN DO NOT practice sik? , but to escape to be devoured by the worms in the life-after, they have THEIR CHEST TATTOOED, WHICH IS CALLED BY THE SANTALS KHODA. FR. PUSSETTO, WITH HIS VAST EXPERIENCE WITH THE SANTALS TESTIFIED: I HAVE NOT ONLY SEEN SANTAL WOMEN TATTOOED ON THE CHEST BUT ALSO ON THE BACK, ON THE FACE, ON THE ARMS AND ON THE LEGS; THE TATTOO WERE ENOUGH COMPLICATED, BUT PURELY ORNAMENTAL†¦THE TA.